Benchmarking Learned Indexes

Summary: Introduces a unified benchmark for learned indexes, evaluating three learned index families against traditional baselines on four real-world datasets. Finds that learned indexes can outperform non-learned indexes in read-only in-memory dense arrays, and analyzes caching, pipelining, size effects, multi-threading, and build times to explain their performance. (summarized by gpt-5-nano on Feb 09 2026)

Paper ID: 12291
Venue: VLDB
Year: 2021
Pagerank: 0.00011965956
Overall Rank: 1,438 | 90.01%
DOI: 10.14778/3421424.3421425

Incoming Non-self Citations Over Time

Authors

Incoming Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 50 of 56 citing papers.

Rank	Citing Paper	Year	Venue	Pagerank
2,550	Updatable Learned Index with Precise Positions	2021	VLDB	8.5569576e-05
3,136	FINEdex: A Fine-grained Learned Index Scheme for Scalable and Concurrent Memory Systems	2022	VLDB	7.4926368e-05
3,614	SNARF: A Learning-Enhanced Range Filter	2022	VLDB	6.9124805e-05
3,945	APEX: A High-Performance Learned Index on Persistent Memory	2022	VLDB	6.605467e-05
4,056	Are Updatable Learned Indexes Ready?	2022	VLDB	6.4905689e-05
4,404	TreeLine: An Update-In-Place Key-Value Store for Modern Storage	2023	VLDB	6.2052645e-05
4,830	CARMI: A Cache-Aware Learned Index with a Cost-based Construction Algorithm	2022	VLDB	5.8884997e-05
4,836	Proteus: A Self-Designing Range Filter	2022	SIGMOD	5.8849277e-05
5,072	Learned Index: A Comprehensive Experimental Evaluation	2023	VLDB	5.7121108e-05
5,154	Hist-Tree: Those Who Ignore It Are Doomed to Learn	2021	CIDR	5.6548237e-05
5,310	The Price of Tailoring the Index to Your Data: Poisoning Attacks on Learned Index Structures	2022	SIGMOD	5.5713508e-05
5,316	Cuckoo Index: A Lightweight Secondary Index Structure	2020	VLDB	5.5688295e-05
5,323	Can Learned Models Replace Hash Functions?	2023	VLDB	5.5671086e-05
5,327	DILI: A Distribution-Driven Learned Index	2023	VLDB	5.5660777e-05
5,601	PLIN: A Persistent Learned Index for Non-Volatile Memory with High Performance and Instant Recovery	2023	VLDB	5.4158958e-05
5,769	Oasis: An Optimal Disjoint Segmented Learned Range Filter	2024	VLDB	5.3326049e-05
5,868	GRF: A Global Range Filter for LSM-Trees with Shape Encoding	2024	SIGMOD	5.2928769e-05
6,298	Towards instance-optimized data systems	2021	VLDB	5.1182917e-05
6,395	Range Search over Encrypted Multi-Attribute Data	2023	VLDB	5.0766624e-05
6,442	Updatable Learned Indexes Meet Disk-Resident DBMS - From Evaluations to Design Choices	2023	SIGMOD	5.0541252e-05
6,488	FILM: a Fully Learned Index for Larger-than-Memory Databases	2023	VLDB	5.0378878e-05
6,723	A Critical Analysis of Recursive Model Indexes	2022	VLDB	4.9449538e-05
6,806	LMSFC: A Novel Multidimensional Index based on Learned Monotonic Space Filling Curves	2023	VLDB	4.917024e-05
7,389	Making In-Memory Learned Indexes Efficient on Disk	2024	SIGMOD	4.7386163e-05
7,870	SALI: A Scalable Adaptive Learned Index Framework based on Probability Models	2023	SIGMOD	4.6271153e-05
8,079	Accelerating String-key Learned Index Structures via Memoization-based Incremental Training	2024	VLDB	4.5873372e-05
8,089	Towards Designing and Learning Piecewise Space-Filling Curves	2023	VLDB	4.5855593e-05
8,408	The next 50 Years in Database Indexing or: The Case for Automatically Generated Index Structures	2022	VLDB	4.5159669e-05
8,411	The Case for Learned In-Memory Joins	2023	VLDB	4.5151296e-05
8,426	Time Series Representation for Visualization in Apache IoTDB	2024	SIGMOD	4.5098472e-05
8,636	WISK: A Workload-aware Learned Index for Spatial Keyword Queries	2023	SIGMOD	4.4758336e-05
8,653	Adaptive Hybrid Indexes	2022	SIGMOD	4.4696663e-05
8,668	Algorithmic Complexity Attacks on Dynamic Learned Indexes	2024	VLDB	4.4671214e-05
8,722	Memento Filter: A Fast, Dynamic, and Robust Range Filter	2024	SIGMOD	4.4558244e-05
8,811	Tuning Hierarchical Learned Indexes on Disk and Beyond	2022	SIGMOD	4.4398976e-05
9,093	AirIndex: Versatile Index Tuning Through Data and Storage	2023	SIGMOD	4.3932886e-05
9,221	Diva: Dynamic Range Filter for Var-Length Keys and Queries	2025	VLDB	4.366098e-05
9,322	Are Joins over LSM-trees Ready? Take RocksDB as an Example	2025	VLDB	4.351469e-05
9,351	Can Learned Indexes be Built Efficiently? A Deep Dive into Sampling Trade-offs	2024	SIGMOD	4.3490308e-05
9,390	Rethinking The Compaction Policies in LSM-trees	2025	SIGMOD	4.341433e-05
9,745	Why Are Learned Indexes So Effective but Sometimes Ineffective?	2025	VLDB	4.2856385e-05
9,902	Towards Systematic Index Dynamization	2024	VLDB	4.2539423e-05
10,038	Understanding Robustness Issues of Updatable Learned Indexes: [Experiments & Analysis]	2026	SIGMOD	4.1905499e-05
10,087	High Performance or Low Memory? An Updatable Learned Index Framework for Time-Space Tradeoff	2026	SIGMOD	4.1905499e-05
10,113	SplineSketch: Even More Accurate Quantiles with Error Guarantees	2026	SIGMOD	4.1905499e-05
10,169	From Learning to Recycling: A Log-Structured Learned-Less Index	2026	SIGMOD	4.1905499e-05
10,172	HIRE: A Hybrid Learned Index for Robust and Efficient Performance under Mixed Workloads	2026	SIGMOD	4.1905499e-05
10,176	Improving Range Scan Performance in LSM-trees with Group Caching	2026	SIGMOD	4.1905499e-05
10,282	Toward Drift-Aware Database Benchmarking	2026	VLDB	4.1905499e-05
10,331	LiBox: A Learned Index as an Array to Minimize Last-Mile Search	2026	VLDB	4.1905499e-05

Outgoing Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 13 of 13 cited papers.

Citations counted here include only citations to other VLDB/SIGMOD/CIDR/PODS papers in this database.

Rank	Cited Paper	Year	Venue	Pagerank
101	The Case for Learned Index Structures	2018	SIGMOD	0.00049778866
382	FAST: Fast Architecture Sensitive Tree Search on Modern CPUs and GPUs	2010	SIGMOD	0.00024888997
819	ALEX: An Updatable Adaptive Learned Index	2020	SIGMOD	0.00016237497
844	The PGM-index: a fully-dynamic compressed learned index with provable worst-case bounds	2020	VLDB	0.00015964123
1,085	HOT: A Height Optimized Trie Index for Main-Memory Database Systems	2018	SIGMOD	0.00014173956
1,169	SuRF: Practical Range Query Filtering with Fast Succinct Tries	2018	SIGMOD	0.00013530267
1,365	FITing-Tree: A Data-aware Index Structure	2019	SIGMOD	0.00012379754
1,464	Learning Multi-dimensional Indexes	2020	SIGMOD	0.0001184772
1,692	A Seven-Dimensional Analysis of Hashing Methods and its Implications on Query Processing	2016	VLDB	0.00010887129
2,046	Efficient Parallel Lists Intersection and Index Compression Algorithms using Graphics Processing Units	2011	VLDB	9.6922338e-05
2,734	Efficiently Searching In-Memory Sorted Arrays: Revenge of the Interpolation Search?	2019	SIGMOD	8.2082721e-05
4,069	CDFShop: Exploring and Optimizing Learned Index Structures	2020	SIGMOD	6.4744708e-05
6,441	An Eight-Dimensional Systematic Evaluation of Optimized Search Algorithms on Modern Processors	2018	VLDB	5.0546366e-05

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Overall Rank	Paper	Year	Venue	Pagerank
9,351	Can Learned Indexes be Built Efficiently? A Deep Dive into Sampling Trade-offs	2024	SIGMOD	4.3490308e-05
10,087	High Performance or Low Memory? An Updatable Learned Index Framework for Time-Space Tradeoff	2026	SIGMOD	4.1905499e-05
8,811	Tuning Hierarchical Learned Indexes on Disk and Beyond	2022	SIGMOD	4.4398976e-05
6,442	Updatable Learned Indexes Meet Disk-Resident DBMS - From Evaluations to Design Choices	2023	SIGMOD	5.0541252e-05
8,079	Accelerating String-key Learned Index Structures via Memoization-based Incremental Training	2024	VLDB	4.5873372e-05
10,038	Understanding Robustness Issues of Updatable Learned Indexes: [Experiments & Analysis]	2026	SIGMOD	4.1905499e-05
101	The Case for Learned Index Structures	2018	SIGMOD	0.00049778866
7,389	Making In-Memory Learned Indexes Efficient on Disk	2024	SIGMOD	4.7386163e-05
4,056	Are Updatable Learned Indexes Ready?	2022	VLDB	6.4905689e-05
5,072	Learned Index: A Comprehensive Experimental Evaluation	2023	VLDB	5.7121108e-05