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FACE: A Normalizing Flow based Cardinality Estimator

Summary: FACE: a data-driven cardinality estimator leveraging Normalizing Flows to learn a continuous joint distribution over relational attributes and estimate cardinalities from model density via Monte Carlo. Adds dequantization and LIKE encoding/indexing for strings; much higher accuracy with similar latency and model size. (summarized by gpt-5-mini on Feb 09 2026)

Paper ID
12944
Venue
VLDB
Year
2022
Pagerank
6.1011198e-05
Overall Rank
4,543 | 68.40%
DOI
10.14778/3485450.3485458

Incoming Non-self Citations Over Time

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Incoming Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 31 of 31 citing papers.

Rank Citing Paper Year Venue Pagerank
3,727 Cost-based or Learning-based? A Hybrid Query Optimizer for Query Plan Selection 2022 VLDB 6.8141709e-05
3,990 FactorJoin: A New Cardinality Estimation Framework for Join Queries 2023 SIGMOD 6.5581983e-05
5,074 Learned Index: A Comprehensive Experimental Evaluation 2023 VLDB 5.7175726e-05
5,334 LEON: A New Framework for ML-Aided Query Optimization 2023 VLDB 5.5649836e-05
5,368 Fine-Grained Modeling and Optimization for Intelligent Resource Management in Big Data Processing 2022 VLDB 5.5457532e-05
5,371 LearnedSQLGen: Constraint-aware SQL Generation using Reinforcement Learning 2022 SIGMOD 5.5428776e-05
5,401 ALECE: An Attention-based Learned Cardinality Estimator for SPJ Queries on Dynamic Workloads 2024 VLDB 5.5285035e-05
5,972 SafeBound: A Practical System for Generating Cardinality Bounds 2023 SIGMOD 5.2474768e-05
7,123 ASM: Harmonizing Autoregressive Model, Sampling, and Multi-dimensional Statistics Merging for Cardinality Estimation 2024 SIGMOD 4.8251036e-05
7,179 Coresets over Multiple Tables for Feature-rich and Data-efficient Machine Learning 2023 VLDB 4.8078895e-05
7,221 Speeding Up End-to-end Query Execution via Learning-based Progressive Cardinality Estimation 2023 SIGMOD 4.797194e-05
7,409 CommunityAF: An Example-based Community Search Method via Autoregressive Flow 2023 VLDB 4.7370979e-05
7,705 AOP: Automated and Interactive LLM Pipeline Orchestration for Answering Complex Queries 2025 CIDR 4.6730494e-05
8,103 Grep: A Graph Learning Based Database Partitioning System 2023 SIGMOD 4.5852201e-05
8,617 A Spark Optimizer for Adaptive, Fine-Grained Parameter Tuning 2024 VLDB 4.4846425e-05
8,834 ByteCard: Enhancing ByteDance’s Data Warehouse with Learned Cardinality Estimation 2024 SIGMOD 4.4394021e-05
9,213 PACE: Poisoning Attacks on Learned Cardinality Estimation 2024 SIGMOD 4.3721075e-05
9,364 FEBench: A Benchmark for Real-Time Relational Data Feature Extraction 2023 VLDB 4.3502487e-05
9,691 Selectivity Estimation for Queries Containing Predicates over Set-Valued Attributes 2023 SIGMOD 4.3035354e-05
9,726 Cardinality Estimation of LIKE Predicate Queries using Deep Learning 2025 SIGMOD 4.2943379e-05
9,825 Athena: An Effective Learning-based Framework for Query Optimizer Performance Improvement 2025 SIGMOD 4.2751057e-05
9,845 Path-centric Cardinality Estimation for Subgraph Matching 2025 VLDB 4.2721228e-05
9,945 SSCard: Substring Cardinality Estimation using Suffix Tree-Guided Learned FM-Index 2026 SIGMOD 4.2432653e-05
10,219 Practical Parameterized Query Optimization via Efficient Plan Reuse and List-wise Ranking 2026 SIGMOD 4.1945683e-05
10,411 OpenMLDB: A Real-Time Relational Data Feature Computation System for Online ML 2025 SIGMOD 4.1945683e-05
10,481 FAAQP: Fast and Accurate Approximate Query Processing based on Bitmap-augmented Sum-Product Network 2025 SIGMOD 4.1945683e-05
10,633 AQETuner: Reliable Query-level Configuration Tuning for Analytical Query Engines 2025 VLDB 4.1945683e-05
10,859 Graph Transformers for Query Plan Representation: Potentials and Challenges 2025 VLDB 4.1945683e-05
10,868 LEAP: A Low-cost Spark SQL Query Optimizer using Pairwise Comparison 2025 VLDB 4.1945683e-05
10,872 LASER: Buffer-Aware Learned Query Scheduling in Master-Standby Databases 2025 VLDB 4.1945683e-05
11,190 Efficient and Effective Cardinality Estimation for Skyline Family 2023 SIGMOD 4.1945683e-05
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Outgoing Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 22 of 22 cited papers.

Citations counted here include only citations to other VLDB/SIGMOD/CIDR/PODS papers in this database.

Rank Cited Paper Year Venue Pagerank
1 Access Path Selection in a Relational Database Management System 1979 SIGMOD 0.0040449103
64 Improved Histograms for Selectivity Estimation of Range Predicates 1996 SIGMOD 0.00063612837
71 How Good Are Query Optimizers, Really? 2016 VLDB 0.00059038975
204 Learned Cardinalities: Estimating Correlated Joins with Deep Learning 2019 CIDR 0.00034784455
608 DeepDB: Learn from Data, not from Queries! 2020 VLDB 0.00019235898
758 Deep Unsupervised Cardinality Estimation 2020 VLDB 0.0001706608
806 An End-to-End Learning-based Cost Estimator 2020 VLDB 0.00016434274
910 NeuroCard: One Cardinality Estimator for All Tables 2021 VLDB 0.00015423056
1,105 Cardinality Estimation Done Right: Index-Based Join Sampling 2017 CIDR 0.00013990395
1,254 Selectivity Estimation for Range Predicates using Lightweight Models 2019 VLDB 0.00013027411
1,369 Random Sampling over Joins Revisited 2018 SIGMOD 0.00012339777
1,703 Are We Ready For Learned Cardinality Estimation? 2021 VLDB 0.00010836769
2,165 Self-Tuning, GPU-Accelerated Kernel Density Models for Multidimensional Selectivity Estimation 2015 SIGMOD 9.389622e-05
2,364 Deep Learning Models for Selectivity Estimation of Multi-Attribute Queries 2020 SIGMOD 8.9554751e-05
2,762 FLAT: Fast, Lightweight and Accurate Method for Cardinality Estimation 2021 VLDB 8.1585394e-05
2,969 Estimating Join Selectivities using Bandwidth-Optimized Kernel Density Models 2017 VLDB 7.7974762e-05
3,449 Learned Cardinality Estimation: A Design Space Exploration and A Comparative Evaluation 2022 VLDB 7.0824319e-05
3,473 AI Meets Database: AI4DB and DB4AI 2021 SIGMOD 7.062864e-05
3,580 Query Performance Prediction for Concurrent Queries using Graph Embedding 2020 VLDB 6.9500996e-05
4,152 openGauss: An Autonomous Database System 2021 VLDB 6.4060406e-05
5,469 Learned Cardinality Estimation for Similarity Queries 2021 SIGMOD 5.4898192e-05
5,861 Machine Learning for Databases 2021 VLDB 5.298883e-05
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Overall Rank Paper Year Venue Pagerank
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806 An End-to-End Learning-based Cost Estimator 2020 VLDB 0.00016434274
910 NeuroCard: One Cardinality Estimator for All Tables 2021 VLDB 0.00015423056
9,726 Cardinality Estimation of LIKE Predicate Queries using Deep Learning 2025 SIGMOD 4.2943379e-05
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758 Deep Unsupervised Cardinality Estimation 2020 VLDB 0.0001706608
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7,221 Speeding Up End-to-end Query Execution via Learning-based Progressive Cardinality Estimation 2023 SIGMOD 4.797194e-05
3,990 FactorJoin: A New Cardinality Estimation Framework for Join Queries 2023 SIGMOD 6.5581983e-05
3,449 Learned Cardinality Estimation: A Design Space Exploration and A Comparative Evaluation 2022 VLDB 7.0824319e-05