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Bao: Making Learned Query Optimization Practical

Summary: Bao is a bandit-based learned optimizer atop optimizers, offering per-query hints via Thompson sampling and tree-CNNs. Adapts to workload, data, and schema changes, improving end-to-end and tail latency; cloud tests show cost reductions and stronger performance. (summarized by gpt-5-nano on Feb 09 2026)

Paper ID
6119
Venue
SIGMOD
Year
2021
Pagerank
0.00018844568
Overall Rank
634 | 95.60%
DOI
10.1145/3448016.3452838

Incoming Non-self Citations Over Time

Authors

Incoming Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 50 of 120 citing papers.

Rank Citing Paper Year Venue Pagerank
2,090 Balsa: Learning a Query Optimizer Without Expert Demonstrations 2022 SIGMOD 9.5668285e-05
2,937 DSB: A Decision Support Benchmark for Workload-Driven and Traditional Database Systems 2021 VLDB 7.8552033e-05
3,167 QueryFormer: A Tree Transformer Model for Query Plan Representation 2022 VLDB 7.4561078e-05
3,241 A Learned Query Rewrite System using Monte Carlo Tree Search 2022 VLDB 7.32744e-05
3,345 Lero: A Learning-to-Rank Query Optimizer 2023 VLDB 7.1908499e-05
3,435 Real-time Workload Pattern Analysis for Large-scale Cloud Databases 2023 VLDB 7.0946114e-05
3,729 Cost-based or Learning-based? A Hybrid Query Optimizer for Query Plan Selection 2022 VLDB 6.8078013e-05
3,819 Zero-Shot Cost Models for Out-of-the-box Learned Cost Prediction 2022 VLDB 6.7267885e-05
4,056 Are Updatable Learned Indexes Ready? 2022 VLDB 6.4905689e-05
4,216 Make Your Database System Dream of Electric Sheep: Towards Self-Driving Operation 2021 VLDB 6.3448176e-05
4,382 HTAP Databases: What is New and What is Next 2022 SIGMOD 6.2318984e-05
4,413 Robust Query Driven Cardinality Estimation under Changing Workloads 2023 VLDB 6.1989918e-05
4,464 LOGER: A Learned Optimizer towards Generating Efficient and Robust Query Execution Plans 2023 VLDB 6.1552798e-05
4,592 Auto-WLM: Machine Learning Enhanced Workload Management in Amazon Redshift 2023 SIGMOD 6.056004e-05
4,687 Deploying a Steered Query Optimizer in Production at Microsoft 2022 SIGMOD 5.9915268e-05
5,323 Can Learned Models Replace Hash Functions? 2023 VLDB 5.5671086e-05
5,339 LEON: A New Framework for ML-Aided Query Optimization 2023 VLDB 5.5596755e-05
5,343 Learned Index Benefits: Machine Learning Based Index Performance Estimation 2022 VLDB 5.5582234e-05
5,412 Kepler: Robust Learning for Faster Parametric Query Optimization 2023 SIGMOD 5.5200608e-05
5,533 QueryBooster: Improving SQL Performance Using Middleware Services for Human-Centered Query Rewriting 2023 VLDB 5.4555519e-05
5,643 Intelligent Scaling in Amazon Redshift 2024 SIGMOD 5.3949759e-05
5,654 AutoSteer: Learned Query Optimization for Any SQL Database 2023 VLDB 5.3882121e-05
5,682 LSched: A Workload-Aware Learned Query Scheduler for Analytical Database Systems 2022 SIGMOD 5.3752251e-05
5,844 Stage: Query Execution Time Prediction in Amazon Redshift 2024 SIGMOD 5.3060581e-05
5,925 HMAB: Self-Driving Hierarchy of Bandits for Integrated Physical Database Design Tuning 2023 VLDB 5.2669029e-05
5,931 FASTgres: Making Learned Query Optimizer Hinting Effective 2023 VLDB 5.2632167e-05
5,941 Eraser: Eliminating Performance Regression on Learned Query Optimizer 2024 VLDB 5.2594013e-05
6,060 Efficient Massively Parallel Join Optimization for Large Queries* 2022 SIGMOD 5.2271244e-05
6,298 Towards instance-optimized data systems 2021 VLDB 5.1182917e-05
6,328 A Comparative Study and Component Analysis of Query Plan Representation Techniques in ML4DB Studies 2024 VLDB 5.1034426e-05
6,382 Sample-Efficient Cardinality Estimation Using Geometric Deep Learning 2024 VLDB 5.0835686e-05
6,639 Leveraging Query Logs and Machine Learning for Parametric Query Optimization 2022 VLDB 4.976781e-05
6,687 How Good are Learned Cost Models, Really? Insights from Query Optimization Tasks 2025 SIGMOD 4.957987e-05
6,860 Detect, Distill and Update: Learned DB Systems Facing Out of Distribution Data 2023 SIGMOD 4.9008421e-05
6,862 Join Order Selection with Deep Reinforcement Learning: Fundamentals, Techniques, and Challenges 2023 VLDB 4.9004921e-05
6,883 PilotScope: Steering Databases with Machine Learning Drivers 2024 VLDB 4.8918682e-05
7,009 Is Your Learned Query Optimizer Behaving As You Expect? A Machine Learning Perspective 2024 VLDB 4.8597992e-05
7,011 Simple Adaptive Query Processing vs. Learned Query Optimizers: Observations and Analysis 2023 VLDB 4.8583284e-05
7,118 ASM: Harmonizing Autoregressive Model, Sampling, and Multi-dimensional Statistics Merging for Cardinality Estimation 2024 SIGMOD 4.8204951e-05
7,180 Coresets over Multiple Tables for Feature-rich and Data-efficient Machine Learning 2023 VLDB 4.8032775e-05
7,220 Speeding Up End-to-end Query Execution via Learning-based Progressive Cardinality Estimation 2023 SIGMOD 4.7926382e-05
7,326 Lemo: A Cache-Enhanced Learned Optimizer for Concurrent Queries 2023 SIGMOD 4.7563708e-05
7,332 Refactoring Index Tuning Process with Benefit Estimation 2024 VLDB 4.7553758e-05
7,486 Quantum-Inspired Digital Annealing for Join Ordering 2024 VLDB 4.7135369e-05
7,564 Modeling Shifting Workloads for Learned Database Systems 2024 SIGMOD 4.7049893e-05
7,676 E2ETune: End-to-End Knob Tuning via Fine-tuned Generative Language Model 2025 VLDB 4.6770108e-05
7,742 Rethinking Learned Cost Models: Why Start from Scratch? 2023 SIGMOD 4.6585812e-05
7,809 Sibyl: Forecasting Time-Evolving Query Workloads 2024 SIGMOD 4.6415559e-05
7,854 dbET: Execution Time Distribution-based Plan Selection 2023 SIGMOD 4.6306186e-05
7,887 SQLStorm: Taking Database Benchmarking into the LLM Era 2025 VLDB 4.6218382e-05
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Outgoing Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 20 of 20 cited papers.

Citations counted here include only citations to other VLDB/SIGMOD/CIDR/PODS papers in this database.

Rank Cited Paper Year Venue Pagerank
1 Access Path Selection in a Relational Database Management System 1979 SIGMOD 0.0040465394
71 How Good Are Query Optimizers, Really? 2016 VLDB 0.00059446482
101 The Case for Learned Index Structures 2018 SIGMOD 0.00049778866
181 LEO - DB2's LEarning Optimizer 2001 VLDB 0.00036970794
203 Learned Cardinalities: Estimating Correlated Joins with Deep Learning 2019 CIDR 0.00034868567
329 Neo: A Learned Query Optimizer 2019 VLDB 0.00027301488
371 Self-Driving Database Management Systems 2017 CIDR 0.00025382677
752 Deep Unsupervised Cardinality Estimation 2020 VLDB 0.00017138049
796 SageDB: A Learned Database System 2019 CIDR 0.00016541749
804 An End-to-End Learning-based Cost Estimator 2020 VLDB 0.0001643674
876 Plan-Structured Deep Neural Network Models for Query Performance Prediction 2019 VLDB 0.00015660534
905 NeuroCard: One Cardinality Estimator for All Tables 2021 VLDB 0.00015423174
1,017 Robust Estimation of Resource Consumption for SQL Queries using Statistical Techniques 2012 VLDB 0.00014627121
1,727 QuickSel: Quick Selectivity Learning with Mixture Models 2020 SIGMOD 0.00010731889
1,856 AI Meets AI: Leveraging Query Executions to Improve Index Recommendations 2019 SIGMOD 0.00010319105
2,154 SkinnerDB: Regret-Bounded Query Evaluation via Reinforcement Learning 2018 VLDB 9.4176683e-05
2,309 On Predictive Modeling for Optimizing Transaction Execution in Parallel OLTP Systems 2012 VLDB 9.0630462e-05
2,959 SQLShare: Results from a Multi-Year SQL-as-a-Service Experiment 2016 SIGMOD 7.8116974e-05
4,547 Database-Agnostic Workload Management 2019 CIDR 6.0904384e-05
4,966 Releasing Cloud Databases from the Chains of Performance Prediction Models 2017 CIDR 5.7949047e-05
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