Learned Index: A Comprehensive Experimental Evaluation

Summary: Comprehensive empirical evaluation and taxonomy of learned indexes, dissecting design choices for position inference/refinement, inserts, concurrency, and bulk-loading within a unified testbed. Benchmarks state-of-the-art learned indexes under identical settings and gives actionable guidance for selection and design. (summarized by gpt-5-mini on Feb 09 2026)

Paper ID: 13054
Venue: VLDB
Year: 2023
Pagerank: 5.7175726e-05
Overall Rank: 5,074 | 64.71%
DOI: 10.14778/3594512.3594528

Incoming Non-self Citations Over Time

Authors

Incoming Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 18 of 18 citing papers.

Rank	Citing Paper	Year	Venue	Pagerank
5,762	Oasis: An Optimal Disjoint Segmented Learned Range Filter	2024	VLDB	5.3377299e-05
6,389	Chat2Data: An Interactive Data Analysis System with RAG, Vector Databases and LLMs	2024	VLDB	5.0844009e-05
7,390	Making In-Memory Learned Indexes Efficient on Disk	2024	SIGMOD	4.7431654e-05
8,076	Accelerating String-key Learned Index Structures via Memoization-based Incremental Training	2024	VLDB	4.5917398e-05
8,101	Hyper: A High-Performance and Memory-Efficient Learned Index via Hybrid Construction	2024	SIGMOD	4.5854141e-05
8,627	Limousine: Blending Learned and Classical Indexes to Self-Design Larger-than-Memory Cloud Storage Engines	2024	SIGMOD	4.4829101e-05
8,671	Algorithmic Complexity Attacks on Dynamic Learned Indexes	2024	VLDB	4.4714076e-05
9,213	PACE: Poisoning Attacks on Learned Cardinality Estimation	2024	SIGMOD	4.3721075e-05
9,346	Can Learned Indexes be Built Efficiently? A Deep Dive into Sampling Trade-offs	2024	SIGMOD	4.3532026e-05
9,364	FEBench: A Benchmark for Real-Time Relational Data Feature Extraction	2023	VLDB	4.3502487e-05
9,618	A New Paradigm in Tuning Learned Indexes: A Reinforcement Learning Enhanced Approach	2025	SIGMOD	4.3173366e-05
9,746	Why Are Learned Indexes So Effective but Sometimes Ineffective?	2025	VLDB	4.2897489e-05
10,038	Understanding Robustness Issues of Updatable Learned Indexes: [Experiments & Analysis]	2026	SIGMOD	4.1945683e-05
10,172	HIRE: A Hybrid Learned Index for Robust and Efficient Performance under Mixed Workloads	2026	SIGMOD	4.1945683e-05
10,621	BLAEQ: A Multigrid Index for Spatial Query on Geometry Data	2025	VLDB	4.1945683e-05
10,683	Accelerating Approximate Nearest Neighbor Search in Hierarchical Graphs: Efficient Level Navigation with Shortcuts	2025	VLDB	4.1945683e-05
10,712	DobLIX: A Dual-Objective Learned Index for Log-Structured Merge Trees	2025	VLDB	4.1945683e-05
10,824	LETIndex: A Secure Learned Index with TEE	2025	VLDB	4.1945683e-05

Outgoing Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 31 of 31 cited papers.

Citations counted here include only citations to other VLDB/SIGMOD/CIDR/PODS papers in this database.

Rank	Cited Paper	Year	Venue	Pagerank
102	The Case for Learned Index Structures	2018	SIGMOD	0.00049545203
381	FAST: Fast Architecture Sensitive Tree Search on Modern CPUs and GPUs	2010	SIGMOD	0.00024873637
826	ALEX: An Updatable Adaptive Learned Index	2020	SIGMOD	0.00016224841
857	The PGM-index: a fully-dynamic compressed learned index with provable worst-case bounds	2020	VLDB	0.00015882892
1,375	FITing-Tree: A Data-aware Index Structure	2019	SIGMOD	0.00012303141
1,460	Benchmarking Learned Indexes	2021	VLDB	0.00011887068
1,478	Learning Multi-dimensional Indexes	2020	SIGMOD	0.00011762542
1,611	Qd-tree: Learning Data Layouts for Big Data Analytics	2020	SIGMOD	0.00011147324
1,889	Tsunami: A Learned Multi-dimensional Index for Correlated Data and Skewed Workloads	2021	VLDB	0.00010200865
2,115	LISA: A Learned Index Structure for Spatial Data	2020	SIGMOD	9.5257379e-05
2,552	Updatable Learned Index with Precise Positions	2021	VLDB	8.5530411e-05
2,678	Effectively Learning Spatial Indices	2020	VLDB	8.3252088e-05
2,865	Designing Succinct Secondary Indexing Mechanism by Exploiting Column Correlations	2019	SIGMOD	7.9862595e-05
3,131	FINEdex: A Fine-grained Learned Index Scheme for Scalable and Concurrent Memory Systems	2022	VLDB	7.4985793e-05
3,449	Learned Cardinality Estimation: A Design Space Exploration and A Comparative Evaluation	2022	VLDB	7.0824319e-05
3,473	AI Meets Database: AI4DB and DB4AI	2021	SIGMOD	7.062864e-05
3,727	Cost-based or Learning-based? A Hybrid Query Optimizer for Query Plan Selection	2022	VLDB	6.8141709e-05
4,060	CDFShop: Exploring and Optimizing Learned Index Structures	2020	SIGMOD	6.4836825e-05
4,084	APEX: A High-Performance Learned Index on Persistent Memory	2022	VLDB	6.4622113e-05
4,128	Are Updatable Learned Indexes Ready?	2022	VLDB	6.4292373e-05
4,446	Stable Learned Bloom Filters for Data Streams	2020	VLDB	6.1800659e-05
4,543	FACE: A Normalizing Flow based Cardinality Estimator	2022	VLDB	6.1011198e-05
4,646	CARMI: A Cache-Aware Learned Index with a Cost-based Construction Algorithm	2022	VLDB	6.0250374e-05
5,157	Hist-Tree: Those Who Ignore It Are Doomed to Learn	2021	CIDR	5.6589595e-05
5,314	Can Learned Models Replace Hash Functions?	2023	VLDB	5.5724608e-05
5,428	The Price of Tailoring the Index to Your Data: Poisoning Attacks on Learned Index Structures	2022	SIGMOD	5.5091613e-05
5,592	PLIN: A Persistent Learned Index for Non-Volatile Memory with High Performance and Instant Recovery	2023	VLDB	5.4210633e-05
5,642	NFL: Robust Learned Index via Distribution Transformation	2022	VLDB	5.3929294e-05
6,492	FILM: a Fully Learned Index for Larger-than-Memory Databases	2023	VLDB	5.042727e-05
6,724	A Critical Analysis of Recursive Model Indexes	2022	VLDB	4.9484506e-05
8,414	The next 50 Years in Database Indexing or: The Case for Automatically Generated Index Structures	2022	VLDB	4.5203005e-05

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10,038	Understanding Robustness Issues of Updatable Learned Indexes: [Experiments & Analysis]	2026	SIGMOD	4.1945683e-05
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