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Bao: Making Learned Query Optimization Practical

Summary: Bao is a bandit-based learned optimizer atop optimizers, offering per-query hints via Thompson sampling and tree-CNNs. Adapts to workload, data, and schema changes, improving end-to-end and tail latency; cloud tests show cost reductions and stronger performance. (summarized by gpt-5-nano on Feb 09 2026)

Paper ID
6118
Venue
SIGMOD
Year
2021
Pagerank
0.00018759152
Overall Rank
640 | 95.55%
DOI
10.1145/3448016.3452838

Incoming Non-self Citations Over Time

Authors

Incoming Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 50 of 119 citing papers.

Rank Citing Paper Year Venue Pagerank
2,121 Balsa: Learning a Query Optimizer Without Expert Demonstrations 2022 SIGMOD 9.5017232e-05
2,985 DSB: A Decision Support Benchmark for Workload-Driven and Traditional Database Systems 2021 VLDB 7.7795847e-05
3,169 QueryFormer: A Tree Transformer Model for Query Plan Representation 2022 VLDB 7.4498425e-05
3,248 A Learned Query Rewrite System using Monte Carlo Tree Search 2022 VLDB 7.3258782e-05
3,348 Lero: A Learning-to-Rank Query Optimizer 2023 VLDB 7.1904529e-05
3,429 Real-time Workload Pattern Analysis for Large-scale Cloud Databases 2023 VLDB 7.1010535e-05
3,727 Cost-based or Learning-based? A Hybrid Query Optimizer for Query Plan Selection 2022 VLDB 6.8141709e-05
3,828 Zero-Shot Cost Models for Out-of-the-box Learned Cost Prediction 2022 VLDB 6.7208524e-05
4,128 Are Updatable Learned Indexes Ready? 2022 VLDB 6.4292373e-05
4,240 Make Your Database System Dream of Electric Sheep: Towards Self-Driving Operation 2021 VLDB 6.3318228e-05
4,284 HTAP Databases: What is New and What is Next 2022 SIGMOD 6.2914924e-05
4,417 Robust Query Driven Cardinality Estimation under Changing Workloads 2023 VLDB 6.2037371e-05
4,462 LOGER: A Learned Optimizer towards Generating Efficient and Robust Query Execution Plans 2023 VLDB 6.1611784e-05
4,593 Auto-WLM: Machine Learning Enhanced Workload Management in Amazon Redshift 2023 SIGMOD 6.0606891e-05
4,690 Deploying a Steered Query Optimizer in Production at Microsoft 2022 SIGMOD 5.997226e-05
5,314 Can Learned Models Replace Hash Functions? 2023 VLDB 5.5724608e-05
5,334 LEON: A New Framework for ML-Aided Query Optimization 2023 VLDB 5.5649836e-05
5,337 Learned Index Benefits: Machine Learning Based Index Performance Estimation 2022 VLDB 5.5635208e-05
5,423 Kepler: Robust Learning for Faster Parametric Query Optimization 2023 SIGMOD 5.5130233e-05
5,525 QueryBooster: Improving SQL Performance Using Middleware Services for Human-Centered Query Rewriting 2023 VLDB 5.4600815e-05
5,634 Intelligent Scaling in Amazon Redshift 2024 SIGMOD 5.4000904e-05
5,640 AutoSteer: Learned Query Optimization for Any SQL Database 2023 VLDB 5.3933314e-05
5,671 LSched: A Workload-Aware Learned Query Scheduler for Analytical Database Systems 2022 SIGMOD 5.3803919e-05
5,832 Stage: Query Execution Time Prediction in Amazon Redshift 2024 SIGMOD 5.3111109e-05
5,924 HMAB: Self-Driving Hierarchy of Bandits for Integrated Physical Database Design Tuning 2023 VLDB 5.2719183e-05
5,930 FASTgres: Making Learned Query Optimizer Hinting Effective 2023 VLDB 5.2682075e-05
5,952 Eraser: Eliminating Performance Regression on Learned Query Optimizer 2024 VLDB 5.2591691e-05
6,056 Efficient Massively Parallel Join Optimization for Large Queries* 2022 SIGMOD 5.2321475e-05
6,297 Towards instance-optimized data systems 2021 VLDB 5.1227886e-05
6,328 A Comparative Study and Component Analysis of Query Plan Representation Techniques in ML4DB Studies 2024 VLDB 5.1082882e-05
6,383 Sample-Efficient Cardinality Estimation Using Geometric Deep Learning 2024 VLDB 5.0884322e-05
6,667 Leveraging Query Logs and Machine Learning for Parametric Query Optimization 2022 VLDB 4.9688874e-05
6,685 How Good are Learned Cost Models, Really? Insights from Query Optimization Tasks 2025 SIGMOD 4.9627485e-05
6,862 Join Order Selection with Deep Reinforcement Learning: Fundamentals, Techniques, and Challenges 2023 VLDB 4.9051979e-05
6,879 Detect, Distill and Update: Learned DB Systems Facing Out of Distribution Data 2023 SIGMOD 4.8971368e-05
6,885 PilotScope: Steering Databases with Machine Learning Drivers 2024 VLDB 4.895386e-05
7,008 Is Your Learned Query Optimizer Behaving As You Expect? A Machine Learning Perspective 2024 VLDB 4.8643538e-05
7,011 Simple Adaptive Query Processing vs. Learned Query Optimizers: Observations and Analysis 2023 VLDB 4.8629458e-05
7,123 ASM: Harmonizing Autoregressive Model, Sampling, and Multi-dimensional Statistics Merging for Cardinality Estimation 2024 SIGMOD 4.8251036e-05
7,179 Coresets over Multiple Tables for Feature-rich and Data-efficient Machine Learning 2023 VLDB 4.8078895e-05
7,221 Speeding Up End-to-end Query Execution via Learning-based Progressive Cardinality Estimation 2023 SIGMOD 4.797194e-05
7,330 Lemo: A Cache-Enhanced Learned Optimizer for Concurrent Queries 2023 SIGMOD 4.7609373e-05
7,336 Refactoring Index Tuning Process with Benefit Estimation 2024 VLDB 4.7599411e-05
7,486 Quantum-Inspired Digital Annealing for Join Ordering 2024 VLDB 4.7180617e-05
7,753 Rethinking Learned Cost Models: Why Start from Scratch? 2023 SIGMOD 4.660151e-05
7,828 Modeling Shifting Workloads for Learned Database Systems 2024 SIGMOD 4.6407986e-05
7,854 dbET: Execution Time Distribution-based Plan Selection 2023 SIGMOD 4.6350172e-05
7,989 RCRank: Multimodal Ranking of Root Causes of Slow Queries in Cloud Database Systems 2025 VLDB 4.6124681e-05
7,990 Blueprinting the Cloud: Unifying and Automatically Optimizing Cloud Data Infrastructures with BRAD 2024 VLDB 4.6117441e-05
8,020 The Holon Approach for Simultaneously Tuning Multiple Components in a Self-Driving Database Management System with Machine Learning via Synthesized Proto-Actions 2024 VLDB 4.6040862e-05
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Outgoing Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 20 of 20 cited papers.

Citations counted here include only citations to other VLDB/SIGMOD/CIDR/PODS papers in this database.

Rank Cited Paper Year Venue Pagerank
1 Access Path Selection in a Relational Database Management System 1979 SIGMOD 0.0040449103
71 How Good Are Query Optimizers, Really? 2016 VLDB 0.00059038975
102 The Case for Learned Index Structures 2018 SIGMOD 0.00049545203
182 LEO - DB2's LEarning Optimizer 2001 VLDB 0.00036962631
204 Learned Cardinalities: Estimating Correlated Joins with Deep Learning 2019 CIDR 0.00034784455
333 Neo: A Learned Query Optimizer 2019 VLDB 0.00027206884
359 Self-Driving Database Management Systems 2017 CIDR 0.0002592783
758 Deep Unsupervised Cardinality Estimation 2020 VLDB 0.0001706608
801 SageDB: A Learned Database System 2019 CIDR 0.00016505496
806 An End-to-End Learning-based Cost Estimator 2020 VLDB 0.00016434274
884 Plan-Structured Deep Neural Network Models for Query Performance Prediction 2019 VLDB 0.00015654004
910 NeuroCard: One Cardinality Estimator for All Tables 2021 VLDB 0.00015423056
1,019 Robust Estimation of Resource Consumption for SQL Queries using Statistical Techniques 2012 VLDB 0.00014625603
1,737 QuickSel: Quick Selectivity Learning with Mixture Models 2020 SIGMOD 0.00010720294
1,855 AI Meets AI: Leveraging Query Executions to Improve Index Recommendations 2019 SIGMOD 0.00010315245
2,156 SkinnerDB: Regret-Bounded Query Evaluation via Reinforcement Learning 2018 VLDB 9.4170209e-05
2,307 On Predictive Modeling for Optimizing Transaction Execution in Parallel OLTP Systems 2012 VLDB 9.0599752e-05
2,965 SQLShare: Results from a Multi-Year SQL-as-a-Service Experiment 2016 SIGMOD 7.8059273e-05
4,549 Database-Agnostic Workload Management 2019 CIDR 6.0926728e-05
4,961 Releasing Cloud Databases from the Chains of Performance Prediction Models 2017 CIDR 5.7984657e-05
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