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Text-to-SQL Empowered by Large Language Models: A Benchmark Evaluation

Summary: Systematic benchmark of prompt-engineering components (question representation, example selection/organization) and token-efficiency for LLM-based Text-to-SQL. Proposes DAIL-SQL (86.6% execution on Spider) and evaluates open-source LLMs with supervised fine-tuning, revealing accuracy/efficiency/cost trade-offs. (summarized by gpt-5-mini on Feb 09 2026)

Paper ID
h37b8ad61902e832d
Venue
VLDB
Year
2024
Pagerank
0.00026787121
Overall Rank
174 | 98.84%
DOI
10.14778/3641204.3641221
PDF
Download (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

Incoming Non-self Citations Over Time

Authors

BibTeX Citation

@article{gao_vldb24,
        title = {{Text-to-SQL Empowered by Large Language Models: A Benchmark Evaluation}},
        author = {Gao, Dawei and Wang, Haibin and Qian, Yichen and Li, Yaliang and Ding, Bolin and Sun, Xiuyu and Zhou, Jingren},
        journal = {PVLDB},
        series = {{VLDB} '24},
        volume = {17},
        number = {5},
        pages = {1132--1145},
        doi = {10.14778/3641204.3641221},
        url = {https://doi.org/10.14778/3641204.3641221},
        year = {2024}
}

Incoming Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 50 of 64 citing papers.

Rank Citing Paper Year Venue Pagerank
533 CodeS: Towards Building Open-source Language Models for Text-to-SQL 2024 SIGMOD 0.00016818605
1,777 OmniSQL: Synthesizing High-quality Text-to-SQL Data at Scale 2025 VLDB 9.6599769e-05
2,027 OpenSearch-SQL: Enhancing Text-to-SQL with Dynamic Few-shot and Consistency Alignment 2025 SIGMOD 9.159284e-05
2,349 The Dawn of Natural Language to SQL: Are We Fully Ready? 2024 VLDB 8.5969105e-05
3,321 GenRewrite: Query Rewriting via Large Language Models 2026 SIGMOD 7.427185e-05
3,489 Combining Small Language Models and Large Language Models for Zero-Shot NL2SQL 2024 VLDB 7.2594757e-05
4,331 FinSQL: Model-Agnostic LLMs-based Text-to-SQL Framework for Financial Analysis 2024 SIGMOD 6.6560341e-05
4,565 QUEST: Query Optimization in Unstructured Document Analysis 2025 VLDB 6.5295131e-05
4,789 Hybrid Querying Over Relational Databases and Large Language Models 2025 CIDR 6.4117376e-05
4,925 SNAILS: Schema Naming Assessments for Improved LLM-Based SQL Inference 2025 SIGMOD 6.3482868e-05
5,119 Is Long Context All You Need? Leveraging LLM's Extended Context for NL2SQL 2025 VLDB 6.2648853e-05
5,546 Automated Validating and Fixing of Text-to-SQL Translation with Execution Consistency 2025 SIGMOD 6.085842e-05
6,224 GenEdit: Compounding Operators and Continuous Improvement to Tackle Text-to-SQL in the Enterprise 2025 CIDR 5.8441943e-05
7,013 Reliable Text-to-SQL with Adaptive Abstention 2025 SIGMOD 5.6191764e-05
7,956 The Power of Constraints in Natural Language to SQL Translation 2025 VLDB 5.4172636e-05
8,021 Generating Succinct Descriptions of Database Schemata for Cost-Efficient Prompting of Large Language Models 2024 VLDB 5.4041713e-05
8,297 ELT-Bench: An End-to-End Benchmark for Evaluating AI Agents on ELT Pipelines 2026 VLDB 5.3587491e-05
8,306 ThriftLLM: On Cost-Effective Selection of Large Language Models for Classification Queries 2025 VLDB 5.3581613e-05
8,355 LEAP: LLM-powered End-to-end Automatic Library for Processing Social Science Queries on Unstructured Data 2025 VLDB 5.3469708e-05
8,896 mLoRA: Fine-Tuning LoRA Adapters via Highly-Efficient Pipeline Parallelism in Multiple GPUs 2025 VLDB 5.2534908e-05
8,897 Optimized Batch Prompting for Cost-effective LLMs 2025 VLDB 5.2534908e-05
9,078 Unveiling Challenges for LLMs in Enterprise Data Engineering 2026 VLDB 5.2258409e-05
9,220 Natural Language to SQL: State of the Art and Open Problems 2025 VLDB 5.2036865e-05
9,227 Text-to-SQL Benchmarks are Broken: An In-Depth Analysis of Annotation Errors 2026 CIDR 5.2032182e-05
9,232 SQL-Factory: A Multi-Agent Framework for High-Quality and Large-Scale SQL Generation 2026 VLDB 5.2032182e-05
9,313 Sphinteract: Resolving Ambiguities in NL2SQL Through User Interaction 2025 VLDB 5.1953926e-05
9,653 Self-Enhancing Video Data Management System for Compositional Events with Large Language Models 2025 SIGMOD 5.142891e-05
9,911 AgentTune: An Agent-Based Large Language Model Framework for Database Knob Tuning 2026 SIGMOD 5.1079647e-05
10,133 ParSEval: Plan-aware Test Database Generation for SQL Equivalence Evaluation 2025 VLDB 5.0727027e-05
10,201 CEDAR: A System for Cost-Efficient Data-Driven Claim Verification 2025 VLDB 5.0599411e-05
10,344 QueryArtisan: Generating Data Manipulation Codes for Ad-hoc Analysis in Data Lakes 2025 VLDB 5.0176429e-05
10,444 DBugScribe: Automatic Database Bug Reproduction from Community Reports 2026 SIGMOD 4.9769913e-05
10,445 DeepEye-SQL: A Software-Engineering-Inspired Text-to-SQL Framework 2026 SIGMOD 4.9769913e-05
10,448 Dialect-Agnostic SQL Parsing via LLM-Based Segmentation 2026 SIGMOD 4.9769913e-05
10,473 Generalized Entity Matching with Adaptivity via Large Language Models 2026 SIGMOD 4.9769913e-05
10,499 OctoSelector: Efficient and Effective Batch-Aware Model Selection for Large Language Models 2026 SIGMOD 4.9769913e-05
10,508 Reward-SQL: Boosting Text-to-SQL via Stepwise Execution-Aware Reasoning and Process-Supervised Rewards 2026 SIGMOD 4.9769913e-05
10,556 Are Your LLM-based Text-to-SQL Models Secure? Exploring SQL Injection via Backdoor Attacks 2026 SIGMOD 4.9769913e-05
10,571 Drama: Unifying Data Retrieval and Analysis for Open-Domain Analytic Queries 2026 SIGMOD 4.9769913e-05
10,596 PLForge: Enhancing Language Models for Natural Language to Procedural Extensions of SQL 2026 SIGMOD 4.9769913e-05
10,605 Reliable Answers for Recurring Questions: Boosting Text-to-SQL Accuracy with Template Constrained Decoding 2026 SIGMOD 4.9769913e-05
10,607 SEFRQO: A Self-Evolving Fine-Tuned RAG-Based Query Optimizer 2026 SIGMOD 4.9769913e-05
10,643 DIVER: A Robust Text-to-SQL System with Dynamic Interactive Value Linking and Evidence Reasoning 2026 SIGMOD 4.9769913e-05
10,681 PRISM: Navigating Cost–Accuracy Trade-offs for NL2SQL 2026 SIGMOD 4.9769913e-05
10,705 NL2SQLBench: A Modular Benchmarking Framework for LLM-Enabled NL2SQL Solutions 2026 VLDB 4.9769913e-05
10,724 SQL-Exchange: Transforming SQL Queries Across Domains 2026 VLDB 4.9769913e-05
10,748 OpenSQL: Data-Efficient Text-to-SQL for Open-Source LLMs via Synthesized Intermediate Supervision 2026 VLDB 4.9769913e-05
10,757 LakeHelm: Zero-Shot Lakehouse Advisor for Joint Engine-Format Selection and Configuration 2026 VLDB 4.9769913e-05
10,790 SafeQL: Search-based Refinement for Safe and Efficient LLM-based Text-to-SQL 2026 VLDB 4.9769913e-05
10,853 I-Rex: An Interactive Debugger for SQL 2026 VLDB 4.9769913e-05
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Outgoing Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 2 of 2 cited papers.

Citations counted here include only citations to other VLDB/SIGMOD/CIDR/PODS papers in this database.

Rank Cited Paper Year Venue Pagerank
1,781 Duoquest: A Dual-Specification System for Expressive SQL Queries 2020 SIGMOD 9.6499657e-05
1,975 CodexDB: Synthesizing Code for Query Processing from Natural Language Instructions using GPT-3 Codex 2022 VLDB 9.2801545e-05
Previous Page 1 / 1 Next

Semantically Similar Papers

# Overall Rank Paper Year Venue
1 10,445 DeepEye-SQL: A Software-Engineering-Inspired Text-to-SQL Framework 2026 SIGMOD
2 10,790 SafeQL: Search-based Refinement for Safe and Efficient LLM-based Text-to-SQL 2026 VLDB
3 1,777 OmniSQL: Synthesizing High-quality Text-to-SQL Data at Scale 2025 VLDB
4 3,489 Combining Small Language Models and Large Language Models for Zero-Shot NL2SQL 2024 VLDB
5 533 CodeS: Towards Building Open-source Language Models for Text-to-SQL 2024 SIGMOD
6 10,776 A Comparative Evaluation of Schema Subsetting for LLM-based NL-to-SQL over Large-Schema Databases 2026 VLDB
7 5,156 An In-Depth Benchmarking of Text-to-SQL Systems 2021 SIGMOD
8 2,349 The Dawn of Natural Language to SQL: Are We Fully Ready? 2024 VLDB
9 10,705 NL2SQLBench: A Modular Benchmarking Framework for LLM-Enabled NL2SQL Solutions 2026 VLDB
10 10,748 OpenSQL: Data-Efficient Text-to-SQL for Open-Source LLMs via Synthesized Intermediate Supervision 2026 VLDB