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The RLR-Tree: A Reinforcement Learning Based R-Tree for Spatial Data

Summary: RLR-Tree uses reinforcement learning to guide subtree selection and node splitting in an R-Tree, without changing its structure. The learned rules beat classical heuristics on 100M objects, reducing query times while preserving R-Tree compatibility. (summarized by gpt-5-nano on Feb 09 2026)

Paper ID
h44c85a9a261b2e08
Venue
SIGMOD
Year
2023
Pagerank
6.377837e-05
Overall Rank
4,851 | 67.40%
DOI
10.1145/3588917

Incoming Non-self Citations Over Time

Authors

BibTeX Citation

@inproceedings{gu_sigmod23,
        title = {{The RLR-Tree: A Reinforcement Learning Based R-Tree for Spatial Data}},
        author = {Gu, Tu and Feng, Kaiyu and Cong, Gao and Long, Cheng and Wang, Zheng and Wang, Sheng},
        series = {{SIGMOD} '23},
        booktitle = {Proceedings of the {ACM} {SIGMOD} International Conference on Management of Data},
        publisher = {Association for Computing Machinery},
        doi = {10.1145/3588917},
        url = {https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3588917},
        year = {2023}
}

Incoming Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 19 of 19 citing papers.

Rank Citing Paper Year Venue Pagerank
6,597 LMSFC: A Novel Multidimensional Index based on Learned Monotonic Space Filling Curves 2023 VLDB 5.7386302e-05
6,715 Replicated Layout for In-Memory Database Systems 2022 VLDB 5.6989853e-05
7,909 CAMAL: Optimizing LSM-trees via Active Learning 2024 SIGMOD 5.4266123e-05
7,981 The Holon Approach for Simultaneously Tuning Multiple Components in a Self-Driving Database Management System with Machine Learning via Synthesized Proto-Actions 2024 VLDB 5.4117272e-05
8,186 Towards Designing and Learning Piecewise Space-Filling Curves 2023 VLDB 5.3800965e-05
8,204 WISK: A Workload-aware Learned Index for Spatial Keyword Queries 2023 SIGMOD 5.3769515e-05
8,812 SwiftSpatial: Spatial Joins on Modern Hardware 2025 SIGMOD 5.270772e-05
8,888 Spatial Query Optimization With Learning 2024 VLDB 5.2543468e-05
9,926 Waffle: In-memory Grid Index for Moving Objects with Reinforcement Learning-based Configuration Tuning System 2022 VLDB 5.1079647e-05
10,007 BT-Tree: A Reinforcement Learning Based Index for Big Trajectory Data 2024 SIGMOD 5.0954911e-05
10,066 Finding Logic Bugs in Spatial Database Engines via Affine Equivalent Inputs 2024 SIGMOD 5.0851868e-05
10,172 PLATON: Top-down R-tree Packing with Learned Partition Policy 2023 SIGMOD 5.0658661e-05
10,296 This is Going to Sound Crazy, But What If We Used Large Language Models to Boost Automatic Database Tuning Algorithms By Leveraging Prior History? We Will Find Better Configurations More Quickly Than Retraining From Scratch! 2026 SIGMOD 5.0407989e-05
10,586 High Performance or Low Memory? An Updatable Learned Index Framework for Time-Space Tradeoff 2026 SIGMOD 4.9769913e-05
10,667 LM-Tree: A Hybrid Learned Index for Similarity Search in Metric Spaces 2026 SIGMOD 4.9769913e-05
10,761 Toward Drift-Aware Database Benchmarking 2026 VLDB 4.9769913e-05
11,066 A Workload-Aware Encrypted Index for Efficient Privacy-Preserving Range Queries 2026 VLDB 4.9769913e-05
11,120 MAST: Towards Efficient Analytical Query Processing on Point Cloud Data 2025 SIGMOD 4.9769913e-05
11,286 BLAEQ: A Multigrid Index for Spatial Query on Geometry Data 2025 VLDB 4.9769913e-05
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Outgoing Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 23 of 23 cited papers.

Citations counted here include only citations to other VLDB/SIGMOD/CIDR/PODS papers in this database.

Rank Cited Paper Year Venue Pagerank
2 R-Trees: A Dynamic Index Structure For Spatial Searching 1984 SIGMOD 0.0019923528
4 The R*-tree: An Efficient and Robust Access Method for Points and Rectangles 1990 SIGMOD 0.0011402175
28 Nearest Neighbor Queries 1995 SIGMOD 0.00051292389
40 The Case for Learned Index Structures 2018 SIGMOD 0.00046363107
44 The R+-Tree: A Dynamic Multi-Dimensional Index for Objects 1987 VLDB 0.00045319457
101 Spatial Query Processing in an Object-Oriented Database System 1986 SIGMOD 0.00033923053
116 Direct Spatial Search on Pictorial Databases Using Packed R-trees 1985 SIGMOD 0.00031633451
314 An End-to-End Automatic Cloud Database Tuning System Using Deep Reinforcement Learning 2019 SIGMOD 0.00021276452
422 ALEX: An Updatable Adaptive Learned Index 2020 SIGMOD 0.00018488849
458 The PGM-index: a fully-dynamic compressed learned index with provable worst-case bounds 2020 VLDB 0.00017880664
869 Learning Multi-dimensional Indexes 2020 SIGMOD 0.00013363241
1,128 Qd-tree: Learning Data Layouts for Big Data Analytics 2020 SIGMOD 0.00011901941
1,188 Tsunami: A Learned Multi-dimensional Index for Correlated Data and Skewed Workloads 2021 VLDB 0.00011598149
1,228 Fractals for Secondary Key Retrieval 1989 PODS 0.00011427053
1,440 LISA: A Learned Index Structure for Spatial Data 2020 SIGMOD 0.00010638444
1,525 Updatable Learned Index with Precise Positions 2021 VLDB 0.00010355133
1,605 SkinnerDB: Regret-Bounded Query Evaluation via Reinforcement Learning 2019 SIGMOD 0.00010095581
1,877 Effectively Learning Spatial Indices 2020 VLDB 9.4498401e-05
2,794 Multiattribute Hashing Using Gray Codes. 1986 SIGMOD 8.0003415e-05
3,035 A Revised R*-tree in Comparison with Related Index Structures 2009 SIGMOD 7.7296096e-05
6,033 Efficient and Effective Similar Subtrajectory Search with Deep Reinforcement Learning 2020 VLDB 5.9076539e-05
7,306 Theoretically Optimal and Empirically Efficient R-trees with Strong Parallelizability 2018 VLDB 5.5571749e-05
8,782 The Case for Distance-Bounded Spatial Approximations 2021 CIDR 5.2777289e-05
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Semantically Similar Papers

# Overall Rank Paper Year Venue
1 1,440 LISA: A Learned Index Structure for Spatial Data 2020 SIGMOD
2 7,908 Processing and Optimization of Multiway Spatial Joins Using R-trees 1999 PODS
3 3,035 A Revised R*-tree in Comparison with Related Index Structures 2009 SIGMOD
4 10,053 Adaptive Indexing of Objects with Spatial Extent 2023 VLDB
5 12,901 Towards Efficient Main-Memory Use For Optimum Tree Index Update 2008 VLDB
6 1,405 A Model for the Prediction of R-tree Performance 1996 PODS
7 4 The R*-tree: An Efficient and Robust Access Method for Points and Rectangles 1990 SIGMOD
8 1,877 Effectively Learning Spatial Indices 2020 VLDB
9 2 R-Trees: A Dynamic Index Structure For Spatial Searching 1984 SIGMOD
10 10,007 BT-Tree: A Reinforcement Learning Based Index for Big Trajectory Data 2024 SIGMOD