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The Case for Learned Index Structures

Summary: Indexes treated as models; learned indexes proposed as replacements for B-Tree, Hash, and Bitmap indexes. The paper analyzes theoretical conditions under which learned indexes outperform traditional ones and reports initial results, signaling ML-driven data management as a design paradigm. (summarized by gpt-5-nano on Feb 09 2026)

Paper ID
h951df9242ad9178d
Venue
SIGMOD
Year
2018
Pagerank
0.00046363107
Overall Rank
40 | 99.74%
DOI
10.1145/3183713.3196909
PDF
Download (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Incoming Non-self Citations Over Time

Authors

BibTeX Citation

@inproceedings{kraska_sigmod18,
        title = {{The Case for Learned Index Structures}},
        author = {Kraska, Tim and Beutel, Alex and Chi, Ed H. and Dean, Jeffrey and Polyzotis, Neoklis},
        series = {{SIGMOD} '18},
        booktitle = {Proceedings of the {ACM} {SIGMOD} International Conference on Management of Data},
        publisher = {Association for Computing Machinery},
        doi = {10.1145/3183713.3196909},
        url = {https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3183713.3196909},
        year = {2018}
}

Incoming Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 50 of 220 citing papers.

Rank Citing Paper Year Venue Pagerank
85 Learned Cardinalities: Estimating Correlated Joins with Deep Learning 2019 CIDR 0.00035876108
144 Neo: A Learned Query Optimizer 2019 VLDB 0.00029090793
318 DeepDB: Learn from Data, not from Queries! 2020 VLDB 0.00021166957
361 Bao: Making Learned Query Optimization Practical 2021 SIGMOD 0.00020000855
422 ALEX: An Updatable Adaptive Learned Index 2020 SIGMOD 0.00018488849
458 The PGM-index: a fully-dynamic compressed learned index with provable worst-case bounds 2020 VLDB 0.00017880664
510 NeuroCard: One Cardinality Estimator for All Tables 2021 VLDB 0.00017059914
555 SageDB: A Learned Database System 2019 CIDR 0.0001650754
560 Plan-Structured Deep Neural Network Models for Query Performance Prediction 2019 VLDB 0.00016408613
768 FITing-Tree: A Data-aware Index Structure 2019 SIGMOD 0.00014107655
835 Benchmarking Learned Indexes 2021 VLDB 0.00013575971
869 Learning Multi-dimensional Indexes 2020 SIGMOD 0.00013363241
1,065 Are We Ready For Learned Cardinality Estimation? 2021 VLDB 0.00012202293
1,128 Qd-tree: Learning Data Layouts for Big Data Analytics 2020 SIGMOD 0.00011901941
1,155 QuickSel: Quick Selectivity Learning with Mixture Models 2020 SIGMOD 0.00011777046
1,188 Tsunami: A Learned Multi-dimensional Index for Correlated Data and Skewed Workloads 2021 VLDB 0.00011598149
1,280 AI Meets AI: Leveraging Query Executions to Improve Index Recommendations 2019 SIGMOD 0.00011224914
1,408 Northstar: An Interactive Data Science System 2018 VLDB 0.00010738859
1,432 Towards a Learning Optimizer for Shared Clouds 2019 VLDB 0.00010676754
1,440 LISA: A Learned Index Structure for Spatial Data 2020 SIGMOD 0.00010638444
1,525 Updatable Learned Index with Precise Positions 2021 VLDB 0.00010355133
1,580 Deep Learning Models for Selectivity Estimation of Multi-Attribute Queries 2020 SIGMOD 0.00010177136
1,840 From Natural Language Processing to Neural Databases 2021 VLDB 9.5271706e-05
1,877 Effectively Learning Spatial Indices 2020 VLDB 9.4498401e-05
1,891 Design Continuums and the Path Toward Self-Designing Key-Value Stores that Know and Learn 2019 CIDR 9.4233024e-05
1,975 CodexDB: Synthesizing Code for Query Processing from Natural Language Instructions using GPT-3 Codex 2022 VLDB 9.2801545e-05
1,982 Chucky: A Succinct Cuckoo Filter for LSM-Tree 2021 SIGMOD 9.2570284e-05
2,002 FLAT: Fast, Lightweight and Accurate Method for Cardinality Estimation 2021 VLDB 9.2076835e-05
2,235 Efficiently Searching In-Memory Sorted Arrays: Revenge of the Interpolation Search? 2019 SIGMOD 8.787006e-05
2,237 Designing Succinct Secondary Indexing Mechanism by Exploiting Column Correlations 2019 SIGMOD 8.7738349e-05
2,270 FINEdex: A Fine-grained Learned Index Scheme for Scalable and Concurrent Memory Systems 2022 VLDB 8.7166469e-05
2,582 Are Updatable Learned Indexes Ready? 2022 VLDB 8.2641447e-05
2,583 Fauce: Fast and Accurate Deep Ensembles with Uncertainty for Cardinality Estimation 2021 VLDB 8.2589842e-05
2,686 Cost-based or Learning-based? A Hybrid Query Optimizer for Query Plan Selection 2022 VLDB 8.1300913e-05
2,765 Instance-Optimized Data Layouts for Cloud Analytics Workloads 2021 SIGMOD 8.0401855e-05
2,833 Cost Models for Big Data Query Processing: Learning, Retrofitting, and Our Findings 2020 SIGMOD 7.9539771e-05
2,839 SNARF: A Learning-Enhanced Range Filter 2022 VLDB 7.9490277e-05
2,861 APEX: A High-Performance Learned Index on Persistent Memory 2022 VLDB 7.9295281e-05
2,880 Optimal Column Layout for Hybrid Workloads 2019 VLDB 7.9118308e-05
2,908 AI Meets Database: AI4DB and DB4AI 2021 SIGMOD 7.8716173e-05
3,032 iBTune: Individualized Buffer Tuning for Large-scale Cloud Databases 2019 VLDB 7.7317595e-05
3,057 Towards a Hands-Free Query Optimizer through Deep Learning 2019 CIDR 7.6960881e-05
3,232 Similarity Query Processing for High-Dimensional Data 2020 VLDB 7.5029541e-05
3,233 TreeLine: An Update-In-Place Key-Value Store for Modern Storage 2023 VLDB 7.5008192e-05
3,272 Estimating Cardinalities with Deep Sketches 2019 SIGMOD 7.4711788e-05
3,479 LOGER: A Learned Optimizer towards Generating Efficient and Robust Query Execution Plans 2023 VLDB 7.2665349e-05
3,480 Cosine: A Cloud-Cost Optimized Self-Designing Key-Value Storage Engine 2022 VLDB 7.2661848e-05
3,487 HUNTER: An Online Cloud Database Hybrid Tuning System for Personalized Requirements 2022 SIGMOD 7.2603973e-05
3,563 Astrid: Accurate Selectivity Estimation for String Predicates using Deep Learning 2021 VLDB 7.2023194e-05
3,565 Auto-WLM: Machine Learning Enhanced Workload Management in Amazon Redshift 2023 SIGMOD 7.200937e-05
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Outgoing Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 18 of 18 cited papers.

Citations counted here include only citations to other VLDB/SIGMOD/CIDR/PODS papers in this database.

Rank Cited Paper Year Venue Pagerank
34 The Design Of Postgres 1986 SIGMOD 0.00049129967
59 Differential Files: Their Application To The Maintenance Of Large Data Bases 1976 SIGMOD 0.00039592759
68 Making B+-Trees Cache Conscious in Main Memory 2000 SIGMOD 0.00037957995
216 Small Materialized Aggregates: A Light Weight Index Structure for Data Warehousing 1998 VLDB 0.00024485637
229 A Study of Index Structures for Main Memory Database Management Systems 1986 VLDB 0.00023915204
277 FAST: Fast Architecture Sensitive Tree Search on Modern CPUs and GPUs 2010 SIGMOD 0.00022320139
647 Building a Database on S3 2008 SIGMOD 0.00015201469
954 RDF-3X: a RISC-style Engine for RDF 2008 VLDB 0.00012866296
960 Reducing the Storage Overhead of Main-Memory OLTP Databases with Hybrid Indexes 2016 SIGMOD 0.0001283613
1,117 Adaptive Range Filters for Cold Data: Avoiding Trips to Siberia 2013 VLDB 0.00011952597
1,212 A Seven-Dimensional Analysis of Hashing Methods and its Implications on Query Processing 2016 VLDB 0.00011521857
1,339 The End of a Myth: Distributed Transactions Can Scale 2017 VLDB 0.0001097043
1,445 An Architecture for Compiling UDF-centric Workflows 2015 VLDB 0.00010628379
1,506 BF-Tree: Approximate Tree Indexing 2014 VLDB 0.00010448376
1,637 SCADS: Scale-Independent Storage for Social Computing Applications 2009 CIDR 0.00010010662
3,374 A Hybrid B+-tree as Solution for In-Memory Indexing on CPU-GPU Heterogeneous Computing Platforms 2016 SIGMOD 7.3606793e-05
3,592 Two Birds, One Stone: A Fast, yet Lightweight, Indexing Scheme for Modern Database Systems 2017 VLDB 7.1807308e-05
4,948 The Wavelet Trie: Maintaining an Indexed Sequence of Strings in Compressed Space 2012 PODS 6.3406121e-05
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