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Are We Ready For Learned Cardinality Estimation?

Summary: Assess readiness of learned cardinality estimators for production; static workloads yield gains, but training/inference costs are high. Dynamic updates hurt accuracy; sensitivity to correlation, skew, and domain shifts; emphasizes cost control and trustworthiness. (summarized by gpt-5-nano on Feb 09 2026)

Paper ID
12539
Venue
VLDB
Year
2021
Pagerank
0.00012369764
Overall Rank
1,061 | 92.73%
DOI
10.14778/3461535.3461552

Incoming Non-self Citations Over Time

Authors

BibTeX Citation

@article{wang_vldb21,
        title = {{Are We Ready For Learned Cardinality Estimation?}},
        author = {Wang, Xiaoying and Qu, Changbo and Wu, Weiyuan and Wang, Jiannan and Zhou, Qingqing},
        journal = {PVLDB},
        series = {{VLDB} '21},
        volume = {14},
        number = {9},
        pages = {1640--1654},
        doi = {10.14778/3461535.3461552},
        url = {https://doi.org/10.14778/3461535.3461552},
        year = {2021}
}

Incoming Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 50 of 60 citing papers.

Rank Citing Paper Year Venue Pagerank
1,122 Cardinality Estimation in DBMS: A Comprehensive Benchmark Evaluation 2022 VLDB 0.0001209124
1,241 Balsa: Learning a Query Optimizer Without Expert Demonstrations 2022 SIGMOD 0.00011521639
1,876 Flow-Loss: Learning Cardinality Estimates That Matter 2021 VLDB 9.5717543e-05
1,988 FLAT: Fast, Lightweight and Accurate Method for Cardinality Estimation 2021 VLDB 9.3501502e-05
2,420 Lero: A Learning-to-Rank Query Optimizer 2023 VLDB 8.605257e-05
2,543 Learned Cardinality Estimation: An In-depth Study 2022 SIGMOD 8.4445934e-05
2,620 Fauce: Fast and Accurate Deep Ensembles with Uncertainty for Cardinality Estimation 2021 VLDB 8.3363963e-05
2,723 Learned Cardinality Estimation: A Design Space Exploration and A Comparative Evaluation 2022 VLDB 8.2049453e-05
3,338 Robust Query Driven Cardinality Estimation under Changing Workloads 2023 VLDB 7.5068221e-05
3,688 FACE: A Normalizing Flow based Cardinality Estimator 2022 VLDB 7.201795e-05
4,349 ALECE: An Attention-based Learned Cardinality Estimator for SPJ Queries on Dynamic Workloads 2024 VLDB 6.7504619e-05
4,368 Lightweight and Accurate Cardinality Estimation by Neural Network Gaussian Process 2022 SIGMOD 6.7393882e-05
4,470 Kepler: Robust Learning for Faster Parametric Query Optimization 2023 SIGMOD 6.6817353e-05
4,929 AutoSteer: Learned Query Optimization for Any SQL Database 2023 VLDB 6.4423294e-05
5,573 Eraser: Eliminating Performance Regression on Learned Query Optimizer 2024 VLDB 6.1682747e-05
5,576 SafeBound: A Practical System for Generating Cardinality Bounds 2023 SIGMOD 6.1663946e-05
5,712 Sample-Efficient Cardinality Estimation Using Geometric Deep Learning 2024 VLDB 6.1123894e-05
5,767 A Comparative Study and Component Analysis of Query Plan Representation Techniques in ML4DB Studies 2024 VLDB 6.0945741e-05
6,088 How Good are Learned Cost Models, Really? Insights from Query Optimization Tasks 2025 SIGMOD 5.9813965e-05
6,132 Detect, Distill and Update: Learned DB Systems Facing Out of Distribution Data 2023 SIGMOD 5.9660278e-05
6,327 Breaking It Down: An In-depth Study of Index Advisors 2024 VLDB 5.9124005e-05
6,459 LMSFC: A Novel Multidimensional Index based on Learned Monotonic Space Filling Curves 2023 VLDB 5.8727182e-05
6,462 PilotScope: Steering Databases with Machine Learning Drivers 2024 VLDB 5.8717744e-05
6,543 Speeding Up End-to-end Query Execution via Learning-based Progressive Cardinality Estimation 2023 SIGMOD 5.8461929e-05
6,704 ASM: Harmonizing Autoregressive Model, Sampling, and Multi-dimensional Statistics Merging for Cardinality Estimation 2024 SIGMOD 5.797374e-05
7,076 Refactoring Index Tuning Process with Benefit Estimation 2024 VLDB 5.7098893e-05
7,193 dbET: Execution Time Distribution-based Plan Selection 2023 SIGMOD 5.6770249e-05
7,206 Selectivity Functions of Range Queries are Learnable* 2022 SIGMOD 5.6731116e-05
7,290 Learning to be a Statistician: Learned Estimator for Number of Distinct Values 2022 VLDB 5.6540503e-05
7,661 Machine Learning for Cloud Data Systems: the Progress so far and the Path Forward 2021 VLDB 5.5736026e-05
7,757 CAMAL: Optimizing LSM-trees via Active Learning 2024 SIGMOD 5.5508469e-05
8,040 PerfGuard: Deploying ML-for-Systems without Performance Regressions, Almost! 2021 VLDB 5.5018396e-05
8,048 WISK: A Workload-aware Learned Index for Spatial Keyword Queries 2023 SIGMOD 5.5003171e-05
8,305 PARQO: Penalty-Aware Robust Plan Selection in Query Optimization 2024 VLDB 5.4568571e-05
8,492 ShadowAQP: Efficient Approximate Group-by and Join Query via Attribute-oriented Sample Size Allocation and Data Generation 2023 VLDB 5.4145838e-05
8,643 PACE: Poisoning Attacks on Learned Cardinality Estimation 2024 SIGMOD 5.3940849e-05
8,791 HAP: An Efficient Hamming Space Index Based on Augmented Pigeonhole Principle 2022 SIGMOD 5.3717005e-05
8,861 Optimizing the cloud? Don't train models. Build oracles! 2024 CIDR 5.355716e-05
8,986 One Seed, Two Birds: A Unified Learned Structure for Exact and Approximate Counting 2024 SIGMOD 5.3387783e-05
9,192 Efficient and Effective Cardinality Estimation for Skyline Family 2023 SIGMOD 5.3058708e-05
9,392 A Step Toward Deep Online Aggregation 2023 SIGMOD 5.2755515e-05
9,587 Machine Unlearning in Learned Databases: An Experimental Analysis 2024 SIGMOD 5.2525104e-05
9,599 Understanding Robustness Issues of Updatable Learned Indexes: [Experiments & Analysis] 2026 SIGMOD 5.2492748e-05
9,756 Efficient Query Re-optimization with Judicious Subquery Selections 2023 SIGMOD 5.2258278e-05
9,920 Still Asking: How Good Are Query Optimizers, Really? 2025 VLDB 5.1955087e-05
9,996 Path-centric Cardinality Estimation for Subgraph Matching 2025 VLDB 5.1814573e-05
10,027 Color: A Framework for Applying Graph Coloring to Subgraph Cardinality Estimation 2025 VLDB 5.1745962e-05
10,028 PRICE: A Pretrained Model for Cross-Database Cardinality Estimation 2025 VLDB 5.1745962e-05
10,108 An Elephant Under The Microscope: Analyzing The Interaction Of Optimizer Components In PostgreSQL 2025 SIGMOD 5.1347137e-05
10,312 BEE: Towards Redundancy Reduction via Block-Separator Decomposition for Subgraph Matching 2026 SIGMOD 5.093636e-05
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Outgoing Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 2 of 52 cited papers.

Citations counted here include only citations to other VLDB/SIGMOD/CIDR/PODS papers in this database.

Rank Cited Paper Year Venue Pagerank
4,277 Adaptive Statistics in Oracle 12c 2017 VLDB 6.7873816e-05
4,789 Learned Approximate Query Processing: Make it Light, Accurate and Fast 2021 CIDR 6.5072039e-05
Previous Page 2 / 2 Next

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