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Learned Cardinality Estimation: A Design Space Exploration and A Comparative Evaluation

Summary: Systematic design-space exploration and comparative evaluation of state-of-the-art learned cardinality estimators. Highlights when they outperform histograms/sampling on multi-predicate, multi-column, and multi-table queries, guiding practical optimizer deployment. (summarized by gpt-5.6-luna on Jul 24 2026)

Paper ID
13143
Venue
VLDB
Year
2022
Pagerank
8.2049453e-05
Overall Rank
2,723 | 81.32%
DOI
10.14778/3485450.3485459

Incoming Non-self Citations Over Time

Authors

BibTeX Citation

@article{sun_vldb22,
        title = {{Learned Cardinality Estimation: A Design Space Exploration and A Comparative Evaluation}},
        author = {Sun, Ji and Zhang, Jintao and Sun, Zhaoyan and Li, Guoliang and Tang, Nan},
        journal = {PVLDB},
        series = {{VLDB} '22},
        volume = {15},
        number = {1},
        pages = {85--97},
        doi = {10.14778/3485450.3485459},
        url = {https://doi.org/10.14778/3485450.3485459},
        year = {2022}
}

Incoming Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 35 of 35 citing papers.

Rank Citing Paper Year Venue Pagerank
2,452 A Learned Query Rewrite System using Monte Carlo Tree Search 2022 VLDB 8.5584e-05
2,762 Cost-based or Learning-based? A Hybrid Query Optimizer for Query Plan Selection 2022 VLDB 8.1539867e-05
3,688 FACE: A Normalizing Flow based Cardinality Estimator 2022 VLDB 7.201795e-05
3,792 Learned Index: A Comprehensive Experimental Evaluation 2023 VLDB 7.1220982e-05
4,349 ALECE: An Attention-based Learned Cardinality Estimator for SPJ Queries on Dynamic Workloads 2024 VLDB 6.7504619e-05
4,470 Kepler: Robust Learning for Faster Parametric Query Optimization 2023 SIGMOD 6.6817353e-05
4,929 AutoSteer: Learned Query Optimization for Any SQL Database 2023 VLDB 6.4423294e-05
5,767 A Comparative Study and Component Analysis of Query Plan Representation Techniques in ML4DB Studies 2024 VLDB 6.0945741e-05
6,088 How Good are Learned Cost Models, Really? Insights from Query Optimization Tasks 2025 SIGMOD 5.9813965e-05
6,327 Breaking It Down: An In-depth Study of Index Advisors 2024 VLDB 5.9124005e-05
6,341 Cardinality Estimation over Knowledge Graphs with Embeddings and Graph Neural Networks 2024 SIGMOD 5.9068986e-05
6,462 PilotScope: Steering Databases with Machine Learning Drivers 2024 VLDB 5.8717744e-05
6,543 Speeding Up End-to-end Query Execution via Learning-based Progressive Cardinality Estimation 2023 SIGMOD 5.8461929e-05
7,193 dbET: Execution Time Distribution-based Plan Selection 2023 SIGMOD 5.6770249e-05
7,846 The Holon Approach for Simultaneously Tuning Multiple Components in a Self-Driving Database Management System with Machine Learning via Synthesized Proto-Actions 2024 VLDB 5.5331459e-05
7,901 Cloud Databases: New Techniques, Challenges, and Opportunities 2022 VLDB 5.5185913e-05
8,042 Grep: A Graph Learning Based Database Partitioning System 2023 SIGMOD 5.5015896e-05
8,492 ShadowAQP: Efficient Approximate Group-by and Join Query via Attribute-oriented Sample Size Allocation and Data Generation 2023 VLDB 5.4145838e-05
8,643 PACE: Poisoning Attacks on Learned Cardinality Estimation 2024 SIGMOD 5.3940849e-05
8,849 ByteCard: Enhancing ByteDance’s Data Warehouse with Learned Cardinality Estimation 2024 SIGMOD 5.3577504e-05
8,986 One Seed, Two Birds: A Unified Learned Structure for Exact and Approximate Counting 2024 SIGMOD 5.3387783e-05
9,192 Efficient and Effective Cardinality Estimation for Skyline Family 2023 SIGMOD 5.3058708e-05
9,428 LIMAO: A Framework for Lifelong Modular Learned Query Optimization 2025 VLDB 5.2709145e-05
9,491 CEDA: Learned Cardinality Estimation with Domain Adaptation 2023 VLDB 5.2626014e-05
9,626 Spatial Query Optimization With Learning 2024 VLDB 5.2434488e-05
9,756 Efficient Query Re-optimization with Judicious Subquery Selections 2023 SIGMOD 5.2258278e-05
9,996 Path-centric Cardinality Estimation for Subgraph Matching 2025 VLDB 5.1814573e-05
10,028 PRICE: A Pretrained Model for Cross-Database Cardinality Estimation 2025 VLDB 5.1745962e-05
10,108 An Elephant Under The Microscope: Analyzing The Interaction Of Optimizer Components In PostgreSQL 2025 SIGMOD 5.1347137e-05
10,612 Index Intersection for High-Dimensional Range Queries 2026 VLDB 5.093636e-05
10,884 Conformal Prediction for Verifiable Learned Query Optimization 2025 VLDB 5.093636e-05
10,945 The Accuracy of Cardinality Estimators: Unraveling the Evaluation Result Conundrum 2025 VLDB 5.093636e-05
11,091 LEAP: A Low-cost Spark SQL Query Optimizer using Pairwise Comparison 2025 VLDB 5.093636e-05
11,103 RankPQO: Learning-to-Rank for Parametric Query Optimization 2025 VLDB 5.093636e-05
11,290 Presto’s History-based Query Optimizer 2024 VLDB 5.093636e-05
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Outgoing Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 24 of 24 cited papers.

Citations counted here include only citations to other VLDB/SIGMOD/CIDR/PODS papers in this database.

Rank Cited Paper Year Venue Pagerank
18 How Good Are Query Optimizers, Really? 2016 VLDB 0.00059284255
76 Practical Selectivity Estimation through Adaptive Sampling 1990 SIGMOD 0.00037054261
84 Learned Cardinalities: Estimating Correlated Joins with Deep Learning 2019 CIDR 0.00035838391
257 The History of Histograms (abridged) 2003 VLDB 0.00023154793
280 Selectivity Estimation using Probabilistic Models 2001 SIGMOD 0.00022454217
323 DeepDB: Learn from Data, not from Queries! 2020 VLDB 0.00021264788
388 Preventing Bad Plans by Bounding the Impact of Cardinality Estimation Errors 2009 VLDB 0.00019410042
401 Deep Unsupervised Cardinality Estimation 2020 VLDB 0.00019092557
465 An End-to-End Learning-based Cost Estimator 2020 VLDB 0.0001803934
513 NeuroCard: One Cardinality Estimator for All Tables 2021 VLDB 0.00017190574
694 Cardinality Estimation Done Right: Index-Based Join Sampling 2017 CIDR 0.00014911698
697 Selectivity Estimation for Range Predicates using Lightweight Models 2019 VLDB 0.00014888851
802 Random Sampling over Joins Revisited 2018 SIGMOD 0.00013907725
1,061 Are We Ready For Learned Cardinality Estimation? 2021 VLDB 0.00012369764
1,071 Lightweight Graphical Models for Selectivity Estimation Without Independence Assumptions 2011 VLDB 0.00012322342
1,170 QuickSel: Quick Selectivity Learning with Mixture Models 2020 SIGMOD 0.00011827259
1,256 Sampling-Based Query Re-Optimization 2016 SIGMOD 0.00011457194
1,503 Self-Tuning, GPU-Accelerated Kernel Density Models for Multidimensional Selectivity Estimation 2015 SIGMOD 0.000105564
1,573 Deep Learning Models for Selectivity Estimation of Multi-Attribute Queries 2020 SIGMOD 0.00010328171
2,203 Estimating Join Selectivities using Bandwidth-Optimized Kernel Density Models 2017 VLDB 8.9610447e-05
2,812 Query Performance Prediction for Concurrent Queries using Graph Embedding 2020 VLDB 8.0979597e-05
2,888 AI Meets Database: AI4DB and DB4AI 2021 SIGMOD 7.9941489e-05
3,662 openGauss: An Autonomous Database System 2021 VLDB 7.2166682e-05
5,340 Machine Learning for Databases 2021 VLDB 6.2603359e-05
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