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Learned Index: A Comprehensive Experimental Evaluation

Summary: Comprehensive empirical evaluation and taxonomy of learned indexes, dissecting design choices for position inference/refinement, inserts, concurrency, and bulk-loading within a unified testbed. Benchmarks state-of-the-art learned indexes under identical settings and gives actionable guidance for selection and design. (summarized by gpt-5-mini on Feb 09 2026)

Paper ID
13242
Venue
VLDB
Year
2023
Pagerank
7.1220982e-05
Overall Rank
3,792 | 73.99%
DOI
10.14778/3594512.3594528

Incoming Non-self Citations Over Time

Authors

BibTeX Citation

@article{sun_vldb23,
        title = {{Learned Index: A Comprehensive Experimental Evaluation}},
        author = {Sun, Zhaoyan and Zhou, Xuanhe and Li, Guoliang},
        journal = {PVLDB},
        series = {{VLDB} '23},
        volume = {16},
        number = {8},
        pages = {1992--2004},
        doi = {10.14778/3594512.3594528},
        url = {https://doi.org/10.14778/3594512.3594528},
        year = {2023}
}

Incoming Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 22 of 22 citing papers.

Rank Citing Paper Year Venue Pagerank
4,886 Chat2Data: An Interactive Data Analysis System with RAG, Vector Databases and LLMs 2024 VLDB 6.4614955e-05
5,261 Oasis: An Optimal Disjoint Segmented Learned Range Filter 2024 VLDB 6.2955539e-05
6,687 Making In-Memory Learned Indexes Efficient on Disk 2024 SIGMOD 5.8022308e-05
7,368 Accelerating String-key Learned Index Structures via Memoization-based Incremental Training 2024 VLDB 5.6315363e-05
7,392 Hyper: A High-Performance and Memory-Efficient Learned Index via Hybrid Construction 2024 SIGMOD 5.6265456e-05
8,039 Algorithmic Complexity Attacks on Dynamic Learned Indexes 2024 VLDB 5.5021992e-05
8,463 Limousine: Blending Learned and Classical Indexes to Self-Design Larger-than-Memory Cloud Storage Engines 2024 SIGMOD 5.4205593e-05
8,591 A New Paradigm in Tuning Learned Indexes: A Reinforcement Learning Enhanced Approach 2025 SIGMOD 5.4059856e-05
8,643 PACE: Poisoning Attacks on Learned Cardinality Estimation 2024 SIGMOD 5.3940849e-05
8,709 Why Are Learned Indexes So Effective but Sometimes Ineffective? 2025 VLDB 5.3789739e-05
9,411 Can Learned Indexes be Built Efficiently? A Deep Dive into Sampling Trade-offs 2024 SIGMOD 5.274743e-05
9,433 FEBench: A Benchmark for Real-Time Relational Data Feature Extraction 2023 VLDB 5.2696166e-05
9,599 Understanding Robustness Issues of Updatable Learned Indexes: [Experiments & Analysis] 2026 SIGMOD 5.2492748e-05
9,892 Accelerating Approximate Nearest Neighbor Search in Hierarchical Graphs: Efficient Level Navigation with Shortcuts 2025 VLDB 5.1997534e-05
10,262 LINE: A Learned Index with Group-Enhanced Leaves and Cache-Optimized Inner Tree 2026 SIGMOD 5.093636e-05
10,267 Mathematical Foundations of Poisoning Attacks on Linear Regression over Cumulative Distribution Functions 2026 SIGMOD 5.093636e-05
10,272 NeurBench: A Benchmark Suite for Learned Database Components with Drift Modeling: [Experiments & Analysis] 2026 SIGMOD 5.093636e-05
10,277 On Self-Designing Learned Indexes 2026 SIGMOD 5.093636e-05
10,461 HIRE: A Hybrid Learned Index for Robust and Efficient Performance under Mixed Workloads 2026 SIGMOD 5.093636e-05
10,876 BLAEQ: A Multigrid Index for Spatial Query on Geometry Data 2025 VLDB 5.093636e-05
10,955 DobLIX: A Dual-Objective Learned Index for Log-Structured Merge Trees 2025 VLDB 5.093636e-05
11,051 LETIndex: A Secure Learned Index with TEE 2025 VLDB 5.093636e-05
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Outgoing Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 31 of 31 cited papers.

Citations counted here include only citations to other VLDB/SIGMOD/CIDR/PODS papers in this database.

Rank Cited Paper Year Venue Pagerank
43 The Case for Learned Index Structures 2018 SIGMOD 0.00046060254
278 FAST: Fast Architecture Sensitive Tree Search on Modern CPUs and GPUs 2010 SIGMOD 0.00022476841
447 ALEX: An Updatable Adaptive Learned Index 2020 SIGMOD 0.00018322593
477 The PGM-index: a fully-dynamic compressed learned index with provable worst-case bounds 2020 VLDB 0.00017851226
790 FITing-Tree: A Data-aware Index Structure 2019 SIGMOD 0.0001401445
847 Benchmarking Learned Indexes 2021 VLDB 0.0001365768
873 Learning Multi-dimensional Indexes 2020 SIGMOD 0.00013481915
1,135 Qd-tree: Learning Data Layouts for Big Data Analytics 2020 SIGMOD 0.00012032847
1,174 Tsunami: A Learned Multi-dimensional Index for Correlated Data and Skewed Workloads 2021 VLDB 0.00011817414
1,418 LISA: A Learned Index Structure for Spatial Data 2020 SIGMOD 0.00010835539
1,551 Updatable Learned Index with Precise Positions 2021 VLDB 0.00010381398
1,840 Effectively Learning Spatial Indices 2020 VLDB 9.6404567e-05
2,213 Designing Succinct Secondary Indexing Mechanism by Exploiting Column Correlations 2019 SIGMOD 8.9410226e-05
2,233 FINEdex: A Fine-grained Learned Index Scheme for Scalable and Concurrent Memory Systems 2022 VLDB 8.8968964e-05
2,723 Learned Cardinality Estimation: A Design Space Exploration and A Comparative Evaluation 2022 VLDB 8.2049453e-05
2,762 Cost-based or Learning-based? A Hybrid Query Optimizer for Query Plan Selection 2022 VLDB 8.1539867e-05
2,806 Are Updatable Learned Indexes Ready? 2022 VLDB 8.1013097e-05
2,888 AI Meets Database: AI4DB and DB4AI 2021 SIGMOD 7.9941489e-05
2,910 APEX: A High-Performance Learned Index on Persistent Memory 2022 VLDB 7.9700885e-05
3,152 CDFShop: Exploring and Optimizing Learned Index Structures 2020 SIGMOD 7.7003613e-05
3,688 FACE: A Normalizing Flow based Cardinality Estimator 2022 VLDB 7.201795e-05
3,729 CARMI: A Cache-Aware Learned Index with a Cost-based Construction Algorithm 2022 VLDB 7.1683974e-05
4,073 Stable Learned Bloom Filters for Data Streams 2020 VLDB 6.9242783e-05
4,414 NFL: Robust Learned Index via Distribution Transformation 2022 VLDB 6.7159984e-05
4,516 The Price of Tailoring the Index to Your Data: Poisoning Attacks on Learned Index Structures 2022 SIGMOD 6.6489359e-05
4,578 PLIN: A Persistent Learned Index for Non-Volatile Memory with High Performance and Instant Recovery 2023 VLDB 6.6210545e-05
4,660 Hist-Tree: Those Who Ignore It Are Doomed to Learn 2021 CIDR 6.5797541e-05
4,780 Can Learned Models Replace Hash Functions? 2023 VLDB 6.5118885e-05
5,447 FILM: a Fully Learned Index for Larger-than-Memory Databases 2023 VLDB 6.2149491e-05
6,163 A Critical Analysis of Recursive Model Indexes 2022 VLDB 5.9532723e-05
7,768 The next 50 Years in Database Indexing or: The Case for Automatically Generated Index Structures 2022 VLDB 5.5475685e-05
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