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Benchmarking Learned Indexes

Summary: Introduces a unified benchmark for learned indexes, evaluating three learned index families against traditional baselines on four real-world datasets. Finds that learned indexes can outperform non-learned indexes in read-only in-memory dense arrays, and analyzes caching, pipelining, size effects, multi-threading, and build times to explain their performance. (summarized by gpt-5-nano on Feb 09 2026)

Paper ID
12478
Venue
VLDB
Year
2021
Pagerank
0.0001365768
Overall Rank
847 | 94.20%
DOI
10.14778/3421424.3421425

Incoming Non-self Citations Over Time

Authors

BibTeX Citation

@article{marcus_vldb21,
        title = {{Benchmarking Learned Indexes}},
        author = {Marcus, Ryan and Kipf, Andreas and van Renen, Alexander and Stoian, Mihail and Misra, Sanchit and Kemper, Alfons and Neumann, Thomas and Kraska, Tim},
        journal = {PVLDB},
        series = {{VLDB} '21},
        volume = {14},
        number = {1},
        pages = {1--13},
        doi = {10.14778/3421424.3421425},
        url = {https://doi.org/10.14778/3421424.3421425},
        year = {2021}
}

Incoming Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 50 of 59 citing papers.

Rank Citing Paper Year Venue Pagerank
1,551 Updatable Learned Index with Precise Positions 2021 VLDB 0.00010381398
2,233 FINEdex: A Fine-grained Learned Index Scheme for Scalable and Concurrent Memory Systems 2022 VLDB 8.8968964e-05
2,806 Are Updatable Learned Indexes Ready? 2022 VLDB 8.1013097e-05
2,910 APEX: A High-Performance Learned Index on Persistent Memory 2022 VLDB 7.9700885e-05
2,919 SNARF: A Learning-Enhanced Range Filter 2022 VLDB 7.9628657e-05
3,535 TreeLine: An Update-In-Place Key-Value Store for Modern Storage 2023 VLDB 7.3333933e-05
3,729 CARMI: A Cache-Aware Learned Index with a Cost-based Construction Algorithm 2022 VLDB 7.1683974e-05
3,792 Learned Index: A Comprehensive Experimental Evaluation 2023 VLDB 7.1220982e-05
4,119 Proteus: A Self-Designing Range Filter 2022 SIGMOD 6.8907395e-05
4,300 DILI: A Distribution-Driven Learned Index 2023 VLDB 6.773869e-05
4,516 The Price of Tailoring the Index to Your Data: Poisoning Attacks on Learned Index Structures 2022 SIGMOD 6.6489359e-05
4,578 PLIN: A Persistent Learned Index for Non-Volatile Memory with High Performance and Instant Recovery 2023 VLDB 6.6210545e-05
4,660 Hist-Tree: Those Who Ignore It Are Doomed to Learn 2021 CIDR 6.5797541e-05
4,664 GRF: A Global Range Filter for LSM-Trees with Shape Encoding 2024 SIGMOD 6.5787544e-05
4,780 Can Learned Models Replace Hash Functions? 2023 VLDB 6.5118885e-05
4,782 Cuckoo Index: A Lightweight Secondary Index Structure 2020 VLDB 6.5115802e-05
5,261 Oasis: An Optimal Disjoint Segmented Learned Range Filter 2024 VLDB 6.2955539e-05
5,423 Updatable Learned Indexes Meet Disk-Resident DBMS - From Evaluations to Design Choices 2023 SIGMOD 6.2242567e-05
5,447 FILM: a Fully Learned Index for Larger-than-Memory Databases 2023 VLDB 6.2149491e-05
5,974 Towards instance-optimized data systems 2021 VLDB 6.0230488e-05
6,163 A Critical Analysis of Recursive Model Indexes 2022 VLDB 5.9532723e-05
6,416 Memento Filter: A Fast, Dynamic, and Robust Range Filter 2024 SIGMOD 5.8829474e-05
6,459 LMSFC: A Novel Multidimensional Index based on Learned Monotonic Space Filling Curves 2023 VLDB 5.8727182e-05
6,537 Range Search over Encrypted Multi-Attribute Data 2023 VLDB 5.8478276e-05
6,687 Making In-Memory Learned Indexes Efficient on Disk 2024 SIGMOD 5.8022308e-05
6,874 SALI: A Scalable Adaptive Learned Index Framework based on Probability Models 2023 SIGMOD 5.7489487e-05
7,012 Adaptive Hybrid Indexes 2022 SIGMOD 5.7262686e-05
7,368 Accelerating String-key Learned Index Structures via Memoization-based Incremental Training 2024 VLDB 5.6315363e-05
7,768 The next 50 Years in Database Indexing or: The Case for Automatically Generated Index Structures 2022 VLDB 5.5475685e-05
8,003 Towards Designing and Learning Piecewise Space-Filling Curves 2023 VLDB 5.5084586e-05
8,039 Algorithmic Complexity Attacks on Dynamic Learned Indexes 2024 VLDB 5.5021992e-05
8,048 WISK: A Workload-aware Learned Index for Spatial Keyword Queries 2023 SIGMOD 5.5003171e-05
8,214 Tuning Hierarchical Learned Indexes on Disk and Beyond 2022 SIGMOD 5.4658344e-05
8,234 The Case for Learned In-Memory Joins 2023 VLDB 5.460955e-05
8,249 Femur: A Flexible Framework for Fast and Secure Querying from Public Key-Value Store 2025 SIGMOD 5.4574671e-05
8,308 Diva: Dynamic Range Filter for Var-Length Keys and Queries 2025 VLDB 5.4562543e-05
8,409 Time Series Representation for Visualization in Apache IoTDB 2024 SIGMOD 5.4311904e-05
8,709 Why Are Learned Indexes So Effective but Sometimes Ineffective? 2025 VLDB 5.3789739e-05
8,988 Towards Systematic Index Dynamization 2024 VLDB 5.3384135e-05
9,106 AirIndex: Versatile Index Tuning Through Data and Storage 2023 SIGMOD 5.3226167e-05
9,411 Can Learned Indexes be Built Efficiently? A Deep Dive into Sampling Trade-offs 2024 SIGMOD 5.274743e-05
9,457 Rethinking The Compaction Policies in LSM-trees 2025 SIGMOD 5.2642945e-05
9,465 Are Joins over LSM-trees Ready? Take RocksDB as an Example 2025 VLDB 5.2634238e-05
9,599 Understanding Robustness Issues of Updatable Learned Indexes: [Experiments & Analysis] 2026 SIGMOD 5.2492748e-05
9,618 SplineSketch: Even More Accurate Quantiles with Error Guarantees 2026 SIGMOD 5.2434488e-05
9,998 SWIX: A Memory-efficient Sliding Window Learned Index 2024 SIGMOD 5.1814573e-05
10,267 Mathematical Foundations of Poisoning Attacks on Linear Regression over Cumulative Distribution Functions 2026 SIGMOD 5.093636e-05
10,277 On Self-Designing Learned Indexes 2026 SIGMOD 5.093636e-05
10,307 Zeno Filter: To Infinity in Tiny Steps 2026 SIGMOD 5.093636e-05
10,378 High Performance or Low Memory? An Updatable Learned Index Framework for Time-Space Tradeoff 2026 SIGMOD 5.093636e-05
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Outgoing Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 13 of 13 cited papers.

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