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The Case for Learned Index Structures

Summary: Indexes treated as models; learned indexes proposed as replacements for B-Tree, Hash, and Bitmap indexes. The paper analyzes theoretical conditions under which learned indexes outperform traditional ones and reports initial results, signaling ML-driven data management as a design paradigm. (summarized by gpt-5-nano on Feb 09 2026)

Paper ID
5617
Venue
SIGMOD
Year
2018
Pagerank
0.00046060254
Overall Rank
43 | 99.71%
DOI
10.1145/3183713.3196909

Incoming Non-self Citations Over Time

Authors

BibTeX Citation

@inproceedings{kraska_sigmod18,
        title = {{The Case for Learned Index Structures}},
        author = {Kraska, Tim and Beutel, Alex and Chi, Ed H. and Dean, Jeffrey and Polyzotis, Neoklis},
        series = {{SIGMOD} '18},
        booktitle = {Proceedings of the {ACM} {SIGMOD} International Conference on Management of Data},
        publisher = {Association for Computing Machinery},
        doi = {10.1145/3183713.3196909},
        url = {https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3183713.3196909},
        year = {2018}
}

Incoming Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 50 of 213 citing papers.

Rank Citing Paper Year Venue Pagerank
84 Learned Cardinalities: Estimating Correlated Joins with Deep Learning 2019 CIDR 0.00035838391
154 Neo: A Learned Query Optimizer 2019 VLDB 0.00028726181
323 DeepDB: Learn from Data, not from Queries! 2020 VLDB 0.00021264788
378 Bao: Making Learned Query Optimization Practical 2021 SIGMOD 0.00019638121
447 ALEX: An Updatable Adaptive Learned Index 2020 SIGMOD 0.00018322593
477 The PGM-index: a fully-dynamic compressed learned index with provable worst-case bounds 2020 VLDB 0.00017851226
513 NeuroCard: One Cardinality Estimator for All Tables 2021 VLDB 0.00017190574
563 Plan-Structured Deep Neural Network Models for Query Performance Prediction 2019 VLDB 0.0001650812
568 SageDB: A Learned Database System 2019 CIDR 0.0001641553
790 FITing-Tree: A Data-aware Index Structure 2019 SIGMOD 0.0001401445
847 Benchmarking Learned Indexes 2021 VLDB 0.0001365768
873 Learning Multi-dimensional Indexes 2020 SIGMOD 0.00013481915
1,061 Are We Ready For Learned Cardinality Estimation? 2021 VLDB 0.00012369764
1,135 Qd-tree: Learning Data Layouts for Big Data Analytics 2020 SIGMOD 0.00012032847
1,170 QuickSel: Quick Selectivity Learning with Mixture Models 2020 SIGMOD 0.00011827259
1,174 Tsunami: A Learned Multi-dimensional Index for Correlated Data and Skewed Workloads 2021 VLDB 0.00011817414
1,279 AI Meets AI: Leveraging Query Executions to Improve Index Recommendations 2019 SIGMOD 0.00011361878
1,392 Northstar: An Interactive Data Science System 2018 VLDB 0.00010936065
1,418 LISA: A Learned Index Structure for Spatial Data 2020 SIGMOD 0.00010835539
1,468 Towards a Learning Optimizer for Shared Clouds 2019 VLDB 0.00010686496
1,551 Updatable Learned Index with Precise Positions 2021 VLDB 0.00010381398
1,573 Deep Learning Models for Selectivity Estimation of Multi-Attribute Queries 2020 SIGMOD 0.00010328171
1,840 Effectively Learning Spatial Indices 2020 VLDB 9.6404567e-05
1,942 Design Continuums and the Path Toward Self-Designing Key-Value Stores that Know and Learn 2019 CIDR 9.4451535e-05
1,954 Chucky: A Succinct Cuckoo Filter for LSM-Tree 2021 SIGMOD 9.4208165e-05
1,988 FLAT: Fast, Lightweight and Accurate Method for Cardinality Estimation 2021 VLDB 9.3501502e-05
2,175 From Natural Language Processing to Neural Databases 2021 VLDB 9.0215773e-05
2,213 Designing Succinct Secondary Indexing Mechanism by Exploiting Column Correlations 2019 SIGMOD 8.9410226e-05
2,222 Efficiently Searching In-Memory Sorted Arrays: Revenge of the Interpolation Search? 2019 SIGMOD 8.9255716e-05
2,233 FINEdex: A Fine-grained Learned Index Scheme for Scalable and Concurrent Memory Systems 2022 VLDB 8.8968964e-05
2,521 CodexDB: Synthesizing Code for Query Processing from Natural Language Instructions using GPT-3 Codex 2022 VLDB 8.4729505e-05
2,620 Fauce: Fast and Accurate Deep Ensembles with Uncertainty for Cardinality Estimation 2021 VLDB 8.3363963e-05
2,762 Cost-based or Learning-based? A Hybrid Query Optimizer for Query Plan Selection 2022 VLDB 8.1539867e-05
2,806 Are Updatable Learned Indexes Ready? 2022 VLDB 8.1013097e-05
2,822 Cost Models for Big Data Query Processing: Learning, Retrofitting, and Our Findings 2020 SIGMOD 8.0898536e-05
2,866 Optimal Column Layout for Hybrid Workloads 2019 VLDB 8.0175489e-05
2,888 AI Meets Database: AI4DB and DB4AI 2021 SIGMOD 7.9941489e-05
2,910 APEX: A High-Performance Learned Index on Persistent Memory 2022 VLDB 7.9700885e-05
2,919 SNARF: A Learning-Enhanced Range Filter 2022 VLDB 7.9628657e-05
3,035 Instance-Optimized Data Layouts for Cloud Analytics Workloads 2021 SIGMOD 7.8297746e-05
3,051 Towards a Hands-Free Query Optimizer through Deep Learning 2019 CIDR 7.8121919e-05
3,213 Estimating Cardinalities with Deep Sketches 2019 SIGMOD 7.6328677e-05
3,219 iBTune: Individualized Buffer Tuning for Large-scale Cloud Databases 2019 VLDB 7.6283153e-05
3,310 Similarity Query Processing for High-Dimensional Data 2020 VLDB 7.5363562e-05
3,516 LOGER: A Learned Optimizer towards Generating Efficient and Robust Query Execution Plans 2023 VLDB 7.3524442e-05
3,535 TreeLine: An Update-In-Place Key-Value Store for Modern Storage 2023 VLDB 7.3333933e-05
3,545 Astrid: Accurate Selectivity Estimation for String Predicates using Deep Learning 2021 VLDB 7.3249967e-05
3,577 Cosine: A Cloud-Cost Optimized Self-Designing Key-Value Storage Engine 2022 VLDB 7.2930211e-05
3,587 HUNTER: An Online Cloud Database Hybrid Tuning System for Personalized Requirements 2022 SIGMOD 7.2829345e-05
3,729 CARMI: A Cache-Aware Learned Index with a Cost-based Construction Algorithm 2022 VLDB 7.1683974e-05
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Outgoing Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 18 of 18 cited papers.

Citations counted here include only citations to other VLDB/SIGMOD/CIDR/PODS papers in this database.

Rank Cited Paper Year Venue Pagerank
34 The Design Of Postgres 1986 SIGMOD 0.00049302774
59 Differential Files: Their Application To The Maintenance Of Large Data Bases 1976 SIGMOD 0.00040060625
67 Making B+-Trees Cache Conscious in Main Memory 2000 SIGMOD 0.00038461275
219 A Study of Index Structures for Main Memory Database Management Systems 1986 VLDB 0.00024293529
227 Small Materialized Aggregates: A Light Weight Index Structure for Data Warehousing 1998 VLDB 0.00023958508
278 FAST: Fast Architecture Sensitive Tree Search on Modern CPUs and GPUs 2010 SIGMOD 0.00022476841
662 Building a Database on S3 2008 SIGMOD 0.00015176173
944 RDF-3X: a RISC-style Engine for RDF 2008 VLDB 0.00013067088
964 Reducing the Storage Overhead of Main-Memory OLTP Databases with Hybrid Indexes 2016 SIGMOD 0.00012934147
1,126 Adaptive Range Filters for Cold Data: Avoiding Trips to Siberia 2013 VLDB 0.00012078607
1,278 A Seven-Dimensional Analysis of Hashing Methods and its Implications on Query Processing 2016 VLDB 0.00011362007
1,345 The End of a Myth: Distributed Transactions Can Scale 2017 VLDB 0.00011090483
1,442 An Architecture for Compiling UDF-centric Workflows 2015 VLDB 0.00010778486
1,492 BF-Tree: Approximate Tree Indexing 2014 VLDB 0.00010588267
1,635 SCADS: Scale-Independent Storage for Social Computing Applications 2009 CIDR 0.00010158805
3,378 A Hybrid B+-tree as Solution for In-Memory Indexing on CPU-GPU Heterogeneous Computing Platforms 2016 SIGMOD 7.4587887e-05
3,576 Two Birds, One Stone: A Fast, yet Lightweight, Indexing Scheme for Modern Database Systems 2017 VLDB 7.2936598e-05
4,911 The Wavelet Trie: Maintaining an Indexed Sequence of Strings in Compressed Space 2012 PODS 6.4483493e-05
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