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Are We Ready For Learned Cardinality Estimation?

Summary: Assess readiness of learned cardinality estimators for production; static workloads yield gains, but training/inference costs are high. Dynamic updates hurt accuracy; sensitivity to correlation, skew, and domain shifts; emphasizes cost control and trustworthiness. (summarized by gpt-5-nano on Feb 09 2026)

Paper ID
h5c05fc5e6cf8c2e5
Venue
VLDB
Year
2021
Pagerank
0.00012181459
Overall Rank
1,064 | 92.87%
DOI
10.14778/3461535.3461552
PDF
Download (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

Incoming Non-self Citations Over Time

Authors

BibTeX Citation

@article{wang_vldb21,
        title = {{Are We Ready For Learned Cardinality Estimation?}},
        author = {Wang, Xiaoying and Qu, Changbo and Wu, Weiyuan and Wang, Jiannan and Zhou, Qingqing},
        journal = {PVLDB},
        series = {{VLDB} '21},
        volume = {14},
        number = {9},
        pages = {1640--1654},
        doi = {10.14778/3461535.3461552},
        url = {https://doi.org/10.14778/3461535.3461552},
        year = {2021}
}

Incoming Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 50 of 61 citing papers.

Rank Citing Paper Year Venue Pagerank
983 Cardinality Estimation in DBMS: A Comprehensive Benchmark Evaluation 2022 VLDB 0.00012677179
1,175 Balsa: Learning a Query Optimizer Without Expert Demonstrations 2022 SIGMOD 0.00011630532
1,740 Flow-Loss: Learning Cardinality Estimates That Matter 2021 VLDB 9.7289523e-05
2,009 FLAT: Fast, Lightweight and Accurate Method for Cardinality Estimation 2021 VLDB 9.1813272e-05
2,190 Lero: A Learning-to-Rank Query Optimizer 2023 VLDB 8.8848923e-05
2,348 Learned Cardinality Estimation: An In-depth Study 2022 SIGMOD 8.5910072e-05
2,523 Learned Cardinality Estimation: A Design Space Exploration and A Comparative Evaluation 2022 VLDB 8.3316032e-05
2,584 Fauce: Fast and Accurate Deep Ensembles with Uncertainty for Cardinality Estimation 2021 VLDB 8.2435322e-05
3,269 Robust Query Driven Cardinality Estimation under Changing Workloads 2023 VLDB 7.463682e-05
3,740 FACE: A Normalizing Flow based Cardinality Estimator 2022 VLDB 7.0398782e-05
4,202 Kepler: Robust Learning for Faster Parametric Query Optimization 2023 SIGMOD 6.7258607e-05
4,315 ALECE: An Attention-based Learned Cardinality Estimator for SPJ Queries on Dynamic Workloads 2024 VLDB 6.6545412e-05
4,479 Lightweight and Accurate Cardinality Estimation by Neural Network Gaussian Process 2022 SIGMOD 6.5665703e-05
4,641 How Good are Learned Cost Models, Really? Insights from Query Optimization Tasks 2025 SIGMOD 6.4739208e-05
4,683 AutoSteer: Learned Query Optimization for Any SQL Database 2023 VLDB 6.4545989e-05
5,075 SafeBound: A Practical System for Generating Cardinality Bounds 2023 SIGMOD 6.2721634e-05
5,453 Eraser: Eliminating Performance Regression on Learned Query Optimizer 2024 VLDB 6.1077838e-05
5,457 Sample-Efficient Cardinality Estimation Using Geometric Deep Learning 2024 VLDB 6.1058928e-05
5,484 A Comparative Study and Component Analysis of Query Plan Representation Techniques in ML4DB Studies 2024 VLDB 6.0980944e-05
5,713 PilotScope: Steering Databases with Machine Learning Drivers 2024 VLDB 6.0090633e-05
5,728 Detect, Distill and Update: Learned DB Systems Facing Out of Distribution Data 2023 SIGMOD 5.9979958e-05
6,121 Breaking It Down: An In-depth Study of Index Advisors 2024 VLDB 5.863893e-05
6,604 LMSFC: A Novel Multidimensional Index based on Learned Monotonic Space Filling Curves 2023 VLDB 5.7196547e-05
6,672 Speeding Up End-to-end Query Execution via Learning-based Progressive Cardinality Estimation 2023 SIGMOD 5.6975871e-05
6,812 dbET: Execution Time Distribution-based Plan Selection 2023 SIGMOD 5.6597129e-05
6,840 ASM: Harmonizing Autoregressive Model, Sampling, and Multi-dimensional Statistics Merging for Cardinality Estimation 2024 SIGMOD 5.6513231e-05
7,238 Refactoring Index Tuning Process with Benefit Estimation 2024 VLDB 5.5624225e-05
7,355 Selectivity Functions of Range Queries are Learnable* 2022 SIGMOD 5.529034e-05
7,377 PerfGuard: Deploying ML-for-Systems without Performance Regressions, Almost! 2021 VLDB 5.5238616e-05
7,446 Learning to be a Statistician: Learned Estimator for Number of Distinct Values 2022 VLDB 5.5113049e-05
7,830 Machine Learning for Cloud Data Systems: the Progress so far and the Path Forward 2021 VLDB 5.4294933e-05
7,925 CAMAL: Optimizing LSM-trees via Active Learning 2024 SIGMOD 5.4086685e-05
8,188 Efficient Query Re-optimization with Judicious Subquery Selections 2023 SIGMOD 5.3649397e-05
8,219 WISK: A Workload-aware Learned Index for Spatial Keyword Queries 2023 SIGMOD 5.359172e-05
8,412 PARQO: Penalty-Aware Robust Plan Selection in Query Optimization 2024 VLDB 5.3211467e-05
8,685 ShadowAQP: Efficient Approximate Group-by and Join Query via Attribute-oriented Sample Size Allocation and Data Generation 2023 VLDB 5.2730954e-05
8,825 PACE: Poisoning Attacks on Learned Cardinality Estimation 2024 SIGMOD 5.2543246e-05
8,975 Machine Unlearning in Learned Databases: An Experimental Analysis 2024 SIGMOD 5.2343759e-05
8,978 HAP: An Efficient Hamming Space Index Based on Augmented Pigeonhole Principle 2022 SIGMOD 5.2334381e-05
9,041 Optimizing the cloud? Don't train models. Build oracles! 2024 CIDR 5.2183053e-05
9,141 Presto’s History-based Query Optimizer 2024 VLDB 5.2078543e-05
9,176 One Seed, Two Birds: A Unified Learned Structure for Exact and Approximate Counting 2024 SIGMOD 5.200391e-05
9,407 Efficient and Effective Cardinality Estimation for Skyline Family 2023 SIGMOD 5.1672232e-05
9,608 A Step Toward Deep Online Aggregation 2023 SIGMOD 5.1376962e-05
9,810 Color: A Framework for Applying Graph Coloring to Subgraph Cardinality Estimation 2025 VLDB 5.112328e-05
9,814 Understanding Robustness Issues of Updatable Learned Indexes: [Experiments & Analysis] 2026 SIGMOD 5.1121061e-05
9,881 BEE: Towards Redundancy Reduction via Block-Separator Decomposition for Subgraph Matching 2026 SIGMOD 5.1043481e-05
10,143 Still Asking: How Good Are Query Optimizers, Really? 2025 VLDB 5.0597449e-05
10,221 Path-centric Cardinality Estimation for Subgraph Matching 2025 VLDB 5.0460607e-05
10,257 PRICE: A Pretrained Model for Cross-Database Cardinality Estimation 2025 VLDB 5.039379e-05
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Outgoing Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 2 of 52 cited papers.

Citations counted here include only citations to other VLDB/SIGMOD/CIDR/PODS papers in this database.

Rank Cited Paper Year Venue Pagerank
4,252 Adaptive Statistics in Oracle 12c 2017 VLDB 6.6894038e-05
4,792 Learned Approximate Query Processing: Make it Light, Accurate and Fast 2021 CIDR 6.4010108e-05
Previous Page 2 / 2 Next

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