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FACE: A Normalizing Flow based Cardinality Estimator

Summary: FACE applies normalizing flows to data-driven cardinality estimation, learning continuous joint distributions that capture column dependencies with compact models. Dequantization, string-LIKE encoding/indexing, and Monte Carlo inference deliver higher accuracy at comparable latency and model size. (summarized by gpt-5.6-luna on Jul 24 2026)

Paper ID
h51202bdeabfe708c
Venue
VLDB
Year
2022
Pagerank
7.0398782e-05
Overall Rank
3,740 | 74.94%
DOI
10.14778/3485450.3485458
PDF
Download (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

Incoming Non-self Citations Over Time

Authors

BibTeX Citation

@article{wang_vldb22,
        title = {{FACE: A Normalizing Flow based Cardinality Estimator}},
        author = {Wang, Jiayi and Chai, Chengliang and Liu, Jiabin and Li, Guoliang},
        journal = {PVLDB},
        series = {{VLDB} '22},
        volume = {15},
        number = {1},
        pages = {72--84},
        doi = {10.14778/3485450.3485458},
        url = {https://doi.org/10.14778/3485450.3485458},
        year = {2022}
}

Incoming Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 32 of 32 citing papers.

Rank Citing Paper Year Venue Pagerank
2,696 Cost-based or Learning-based? A Hybrid Query Optimizer for Query Plan Selection 2022 VLDB 8.1068354e-05
2,852 FactorJoin: A New Cardinality Estimation Framework for Join Queries 2023 SIGMOD 7.9201312e-05
3,632 Learned Index: A Comprehensive Experimental Evaluation 2023 VLDB 7.1274345e-05
3,914 AOP: Automated and Interactive LLM Pipeline Orchestration for Answering Complex Queries 2025 CIDR 6.9084826e-05
4,247 LEON: A New Framework for ML-Aided Query Optimization 2023 VLDB 6.6920059e-05
4,315 ALECE: An Attention-based Learned Cardinality Estimator for SPJ Queries on Dynamic Workloads 2024 VLDB 6.6545412e-05
4,508 LearnedSQLGen: Constraint-aware SQL Generation using Reinforcement Learning 2022 SIGMOD 6.5553854e-05
5,043 Fine-Grained Modeling and Optimization for Intelligent Resource Management in Big Data Processing 2022 VLDB 6.28918e-05
5,075 SafeBound: A Practical System for Generating Cardinality Bounds 2023 SIGMOD 6.2721634e-05
6,654 Coresets over Multiple Tables for Feature-rich and Data-efficient Machine Learning 2023 VLDB 5.7038474e-05
6,672 Speeding Up End-to-end Query Execution via Learning-based Progressive Cardinality Estimation 2023 SIGMOD 5.6975871e-05
6,840 ASM: Harmonizing Autoregressive Model, Sampling, and Multi-dimensional Statistics Merging for Cardinality Estimation 2024 SIGMOD 5.6513231e-05
7,088 CommunityAF: An Example-based Community Search Method via Autoregressive Flow 2023 VLDB 5.5876259e-05
8,026 A Spark Optimizer for Adaptive, Fine-Grained Parameter Tuning 2024 VLDB 5.3884724e-05
8,225 Grep: A Graph Learning Based Database Partitioning System 2023 SIGMOD 5.3583852e-05
8,825 PACE: Poisoning Attacks on Learned Cardinality Estimation 2024 SIGMOD 5.2543246e-05
9,031 ByteCard: Enhancing ByteDance’s Data Warehouse with Learned Cardinality Estimation 2024 SIGMOD 5.219814e-05
9,213 FEBench: A Benchmark for Real-Time Relational Data Feature Extraction 2023 VLDB 5.1926696e-05
9,407 Efficient and Effective Cardinality Estimation for Skyline Family 2023 SIGMOD 5.1672232e-05
9,583 Athena: An Effective Learning-based Framework for Query Optimizer Performance Improvement 2025 SIGMOD 5.140977e-05
9,995 Graph Transformers for Query Plan Representation: Potentials and Challenges 2025 VLDB 5.0845476e-05
10,014 Selectivity Estimation for Queries Containing Predicates over Set-Valued Attributes 2023 SIGMOD 5.0838565e-05
10,070 Cardinality Estimation of LIKE Predicate Queries using Deep Learning 2025 SIGMOD 5.0733319e-05
10,221 Path-centric Cardinality Estimation for Subgraph Matching 2025 VLDB 5.0460607e-05
10,355 SSCard: Substring Cardinality Estimation using Suffix Tree-Guided Learned FM-Index 2026 SIGMOD 5.0156513e-05
10,500 Bridging the Gap: Cardinality Estimation for Semantic Queries on Unstructured Data 2026 SIGMOD 4.9605343e-05
10,764 Practical Parameterized Query Optimization via Efficient Plan Reuse and List-wise Ranking 2026 SIGMOD 4.9605343e-05
11,198 OpenMLDB: A Real-Time Relational Data Feature Computation System for Online ML 2025 SIGMOD 4.9605343e-05
11,252 FAAQP: Fast and Accurate Approximate Query Processing based on Bitmap-augmented Sum-Product Network 2025 SIGMOD 4.9605343e-05
11,350 AQETuner: Reliable Query-level Configuration Tuning for Analytical Query Engines 2025 VLDB 4.9605343e-05
11,501 LEAP: A Low-cost Spark SQL Query Optimizer using Pairwise Comparison 2025 VLDB 4.9605343e-05
11,505 LASER: Buffer-Aware Learned Query Scheduling in Master-Standby Databases 2025 VLDB 4.9605343e-05
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Outgoing Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 22 of 22 cited papers.

Citations counted here include only citations to other VLDB/SIGMOD/CIDR/PODS papers in this database.

Rank Cited Paper Year Venue Pagerank
1 Access Path Selection in a Relational Database Management System 1979 SIGMOD 0.0023948467
15 How Good Are Query Optimizers, Really? 2016 VLDB 0.00061463175
37 Improved Histograms for Selectivity Estimation of Range Predicates 1996 SIGMOD 0.00047654188
84 Learned Cardinalities: Estimating Correlated Joins with Deep Learning 2019 CIDR 0.00035920657
320 DeepDB: Learn from Data, not from Queries! 2020 VLDB 0.00021128745
405 Deep Unsupervised Cardinality Estimation 2020 VLDB 0.00019020138
453 An End-to-End Learning-based Cost Estimator 2020 VLDB 0.0001801482
508 NeuroCard: One Cardinality Estimator for All Tables 2021 VLDB 0.00017108973
689 Cardinality Estimation Done Right: Index-Based Join Sampling 2017 CIDR 0.00014725904
690 Selectivity Estimation for Range Predicates using Lightweight Models 2019 VLDB 0.00014703258
793 Random Sampling over Joins Revisited 2018 SIGMOD 0.00013903938
1,064 Are We Ready For Learned Cardinality Estimation? 2021 VLDB 0.00012181459
1,511 Self-Tuning, GPU-Accelerated Kernel Density Models for Multidimensional Selectivity Estimation 2015 SIGMOD 0.00010408003
1,583 Deep Learning Models for Selectivity Estimation of Multi-Attribute Queries 2020 SIGMOD 0.00010148362
2,009 FLAT: Fast, Lightweight and Accurate Method for Cardinality Estimation 2021 VLDB 9.1813272e-05
2,228 Estimating Join Selectivities using Bandwidth-Optimized Kernel Density Models 2017 VLDB 8.7912743e-05
2,523 Learned Cardinality Estimation: A Design Space Exploration and A Comparative Evaluation 2022 VLDB 8.3316032e-05
2,768 Query Performance Prediction for Concurrent Queries using Graph Embedding 2020 VLDB 8.0199086e-05
2,913 AI Meets Database: AI4DB and DB4AI 2021 SIGMOD 7.855786e-05
3,687 openGauss: An Autonomous Database System 2021 VLDB 7.0797286e-05
4,703 Learned Cardinality Estimation for Similarity Queries 2021 SIGMOD 6.4458272e-05
4,765 Machine Learning for Databases 2021 VLDB 6.4166895e-05
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Semantically Similar Papers

# Overall Rank Paper Year Venue
1 2,584 Fauce: Fast and Accurate Deep Ensembles with Uncertainty for Cardinality Estimation 2021 VLDB
2 508 NeuroCard: One Cardinality Estimator for All Tables 2021 VLDB
3 453 An End-to-End Learning-based Cost Estimator 2020 VLDB
4 10,070 Cardinality Estimation of LIKE Predicate Queries using Deep Learning 2025 SIGMOD
5 1,740 Flow-Loss: Learning Cardinality Estimates That Matter 2021 VLDB
6 405 Deep Unsupervised Cardinality Estimation 2020 VLDB
7 1,064 Are We Ready For Learned Cardinality Estimation? 2021 VLDB
8 6,672 Speeding Up End-to-end Query Execution via Learning-based Progressive Cardinality Estimation 2023 SIGMOD
9 2,852 FactorJoin: A New Cardinality Estimation Framework for Join Queries 2023 SIGMOD
10 2,523 Learned Cardinality Estimation: A Design Space Exploration and A Comparative Evaluation 2022 VLDB