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Bao: Making Learned Query Optimization Practical

Summary: Bao is a bandit-based learned optimizer atop optimizers, offering per-query hints via Thompson sampling and tree-CNNs. Adapts to workload, data, and schema changes, improving end-to-end and tail latency; cloud tests show cost reductions and stronger performance. (summarized by gpt-5-nano on Feb 09 2026)

Paper ID
h840803224e5b1dd4
Venue
SIGMOD
Year
2021
Pagerank
0.00020146245
Overall Rank
355 | 97.63%
DOI
10.1145/3448016.3452838
PDF
Download (CC BY 4.0)

Incoming Non-self Citations Over Time

Authors

BibTeX Citation

@inproceedings{marcus_sigmod21,
        title = {{Bao: Making Learned Query Optimization Practical}},
        author = {Marcus, Ryan and Negi, Parimarjan and Mao, Hongzi and Tatbul, Nesime and Alizadeh, Mohammad and Kraska, Tim},
        series = {{SIGMOD} '21},
        booktitle = {Proceedings of the {ACM} {SIGMOD} International Conference on Management of Data},
        publisher = {Association for Computing Machinery},
        doi = {10.1145/3448016.3452838},
        url = {https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3448016.3452838},
        year = {2021}
}

Incoming Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 50 of 132 citing papers.

Rank Citing Paper Year Venue Pagerank
7,238 Refactoring Index Tuning Process with Benefit Estimation 2024 VLDB 5.5624225e-05
7,257 RCRank: Multimodal Ranking of Root Causes of Slow Queries in Cloud Database Systems 2025 VLDB 5.5579707e-05
7,363 Blueprinting the Cloud: Unifying and Automatically Optimizing Cloud Data Infrastructures with BRAD 2024 VLDB 5.5279826e-05
7,388 Towards Foundation Database Models 2025 CIDR 5.5211011e-05
7,394 ADOPT: Adaptively Optimizing Attribute Orders for Worst-Case Optimal Join Algorithms via Reinforcement Learning 2023 VLDB 5.5202266e-05
7,432 POLAR: Adaptive and Non-invasive Join Order Selection via Plans of Least Resistance 2024 VLDB 5.5133928e-05
7,483 T3: Accurate and Fast Performance Prediction for Relational Database Systems With Compiled Decision Trees 2025 SIGMOD 5.5007125e-05
7,561 Learned Offline Query Planning via Bayesian Optimization 2025 SIGMOD 5.4784915e-05
7,621 SageDB: An Instance-Optimized Data Analytics System 2022 VLDB 5.4664683e-05
7,997 The Holon Approach for Simultaneously Tuning Multiple Components in a Self-Driving Database Management System with Machine Learning via Synthesized Proto-Actions 2024 VLDB 5.3938336e-05
8,050 NeurDB: On the Design and Implementation of an AI-powered Autonomous Database 2025 CIDR 5.3839177e-05
8,064 Efficiently Computing Join Orders with Heuristic Search 2023 SIGMOD 5.3813708e-05
8,389 GenJoin: Conditional Generative Plan-to-Plan Query Optimizer that Learns from Subplan Hints 2026 SIGMOD 5.3250456e-05
8,412 PARQO: Penalty-Aware Robust Plan Selection in Query Optimization 2024 VLDB 5.3211467e-05
8,419 The Case for Learned In-Memory Joins 2023 VLDB 5.3198816e-05
8,550 ROME: Robust Query Optimization via Parallel Multi-Plan Execution 2024 SIGMOD 5.3030089e-05
8,657 LIMAO: A Framework for Lifelong Modular Learned Query Optimization 2025 VLDB 5.2790784e-05
8,790 One Size Does Not Fit All: A Bandit-Based Sampler Combination Framework with Theoretical Guarantees 2022 SIGMOD 5.2633515e-05
8,872 SkinnerMT: Parallelizing for Efficiency and Robustness in Adaptive Query Processing on Multicore Platforms 2023 VLDB 5.2459616e-05
8,902 Tiresias: Enabling Predictive Autonomous Storage and Indexing 2022 VLDB 5.2387388e-05
8,989 Conformal Prediction for Verifiable Learned Query Optimization 2025 VLDB 5.2304457e-05
8,992 GEqO: ML-Accelerated Semantic Equivalence Detection 2023 SIGMOD 5.2295579e-05
9,011 Improving DBMS Scheduling Decisions with Accurate Performance Prediction on Concurrent Queries 2025 VLDB 5.2238303e-05
9,041 Optimizing the cloud? Don't train models. Build oracles! 2024 CIDR 5.2183053e-05
9,141 Presto’s History-based Query Optimizer 2024 VLDB 5.2078543e-05
9,143 Check Out the Big Brain on BRAD: Simplifying Cloud Data Processing with Learned Automated Data Meshes 2023 VLDB 5.2074327e-05
9,154 Hit the Gym: Accelerating Query Execution to Efficiently Bootstrap Behavior Models for Self-Driving Database Management Systems 2024 VLDB 5.2050937e-05
9,236 BASE: Bridging the Gap between Cost and Latency for Query Optimization 2023 VLDB 5.1882723e-05
9,385 Automatic SQL Error Mitigation in Oracle 2023 VLDB 5.1697992e-05
9,583 Athena: An Effective Learning-based Framework for Query Optimizer Performance Improvement 2025 SIGMOD 5.140977e-05
9,662 Low Rank Learning for Offline Query Optimization 2025 SIGMOD 5.1283524e-05
9,681 Are Joins over LSM-trees Ready? Take RocksDB as an Example 2025 VLDB 5.1258854e-05
9,731 Database Gyms 2023 CIDR 5.120066e-05
9,756 APQO: An Adaptive Framework for Parametric Query Optimization 2026 SIGMOD 5.115551e-05
9,767 PAR2QO: Parametric Penalty-Aware Robust Query Optimization 2025 VLDB 5.115551e-05
9,837 NeuSO: Neural Optimizer for Subgraph Queries 2026 SIGMOD 5.1064323e-05
9,995 Graph Transformers for Query Plan Representation: Potentials and Challenges 2025 VLDB 5.0845476e-05
10,017 The Image Calculator: 10x Faster Image-AI Inference by Replacing JPEG with Self-designing Storage Format 2024 SIGMOD 5.0825892e-05
10,074 QO-Insight: Inspecting Steered Query Optimizers 2023 VLDB 5.0732737e-05
10,109 veDB-HTAP: a Highly Integrated, Efficient and Adaptive HTAP System 2025 VLDB 5.0672857e-05
10,143 Still Asking: How Good Are Query Optimizers, Really? 2025 VLDB 5.0597449e-05
10,184 Does A Fish Need a Bicycle? The Case for On-Chip NPUs in DBMS 2026 CIDR 5.052396e-05
10,206 PLATON: Top-down R-tree Packing with Learned Partition Policy 2023 SIGMOD 5.0491152e-05
10,249 Turbo-Charging SPJ Query Plans with Learned Physical Join Operator Selections 2022 VLDB 5.0412674e-05
10,318 Towards Full Stack Adaptivity in Permissioned Blockchains 2024 VLDB 5.0258044e-05
10,320 AdaChain: A Learned Adaptive Blockchain 2023 VLDB 5.0258044e-05
10,323 This is Going to Sound Crazy, But What If We Used Large Language Models to Boost Automatic Database Tuning Algorithms By Leveraging Prior History? We Will Find Better Configurations More Quickly Than Retraining From Scratch! 2026 SIGMOD 5.0241309e-05
10,347 Intra-Query Runtime Elasticity for Cloud-Native Data Analysis 2025 SIGMOD 5.0195882e-05
10,355 SSCard: Substring Cardinality Estimation using Suffix Tree-Guided Learned FM-Index 2026 SIGMOD 5.0156513e-05
10,370 An Elephant Under The Microscope: Analyzing The Interaction Of Optimizer Components In PostgreSQL 2025 SIGMOD 5.0010514e-05
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Outgoing Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 20 of 20 cited papers.

Citations counted here include only citations to other VLDB/SIGMOD/CIDR/PODS papers in this database.

Rank Cited Paper Year Venue Pagerank
1 Access Path Selection in a Relational Database Management System 1979 SIGMOD 0.0023948467
15 How Good Are Query Optimizers, Really? 2016 VLDB 0.00061463175
40 The Case for Learned Index Structures 2018 SIGMOD 0.00046249672
84 Learned Cardinalities: Estimating Correlated Joins with Deep Learning 2019 CIDR 0.00035920657
98 LEO - DB2's LEarning Optimizer 2001 VLDB 0.00034050614
142 Neo: A Learned Query Optimizer 2019 VLDB 0.00029114937
224 Self-Driving Database Management Systems 2017 CIDR 0.00023973185
405 Deep Unsupervised Cardinality Estimation 2020 VLDB 0.00019020138
453 An End-to-End Learning-based Cost Estimator 2020 VLDB 0.0001801482
508 NeuroCard: One Cardinality Estimator for All Tables 2021 VLDB 0.00017108973
545 Plan-Structured Deep Neural Network Models for Query Performance Prediction 2019 VLDB 0.0001657599
550 SageDB: A Learned Database System 2019 CIDR 0.00016525249
676 Robust Estimation of Resource Consumption for SQL Queries using Statistical Techniques 2012 VLDB 0.00014838681
1,156 QuickSel: Quick Selectivity Learning with Mixture Models 2020 SIGMOD 0.00011759683
1,282 AI Meets AI: Leveraging Query Executions to Improve Index Recommendations 2019 SIGMOD 0.00011197535
1,803 SkinnerDB: Regret-Bounded Query Evaluation via Reinforcement Learning 2018 VLDB 9.5987229e-05
1,840 On Predictive Modeling for Optimizing Transaction Execution in Parallel OLTP Systems 2012 VLDB 9.5171028e-05
2,543 SQLShare: Results from a Multi-Year SQL-as-a-Service Experiment 2016 SIGMOD 8.2993351e-05
4,061 Database-Agnostic Workload Management 2019 CIDR 6.8129772e-05
5,097 Releasing Cloud Databases from the Chains of Performance Prediction Models 2017 CIDR 6.2632543e-05
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