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NeuroCard: One Cardinality Estimator for All Tables

Summary: NeuroCard uses a single neural density estimator over the database to model join cardinalities, with no independence assumptions. Join sampling and autoregressive modeling achieve state-of-the-art accuracy; scalable to dozens of tables and compact to train. (summarized by gpt-5-nano on Feb 09 2026)

Paper ID
h0056ad0d8d2b5259
Venue
VLDB
Year
2021
Pagerank
0.00017050173
Overall Rank
512 | 96.56%
DOI
10.14778/3421424.3421432

Incoming Non-self Citations Over Time

Authors

BibTeX Citation

@article{yang_vldb21,
        title = {{NeuroCard: One Cardinality Estimator for All Tables}},
        author = {Yang, Zongheng and Kamsetty, Amog and Luan, Sifei and Liang, Eric and Duan, Yan and Chen, Xi and Stoica, Ion},
        journal = {PVLDB},
        series = {{VLDB} '21},
        volume = {14},
        number = {1},
        pages = {61--73},
        doi = {10.14778/3421424.3421432},
        url = {https://doi.org/10.14778/3421424.3421432},
        year = {2021}
}

Incoming Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 50 of 91 citing papers.

Rank Citing Paper Year Venue Pagerank
362 Bao: Making Learned Query Optimization Practical 2021 SIGMOD 0.00019989474
982 Cardinality Estimation in DBMS: A Comprehensive Benchmark Evaluation 2022 VLDB 0.00012714044
1,064 Are We Ready For Learned Cardinality Estimation? 2021 VLDB 0.00012202282
1,199 Balsa: Learning a Query Optimizer Without Expert Demonstrations 2022 SIGMOD 0.00011563985
1,515 DSB: A Decision Support Benchmark for Workload-Driven and Traditional Database Systems 2021 VLDB 0.00010417728
1,734 Flow-Loss: Learning Cardinality Estimates That Matter 2021 VLDB 9.7545773e-05
2,004 FLAT: Fast, Lightweight and Accurate Method for Cardinality Estimation 2021 VLDB 9.2065719e-05
2,210 Lero: A Learning-to-Rank Query Optimizer 2023 VLDB 8.8257742e-05
2,342 Learned Cardinality Estimation: An In-depth Study 2022 SIGMOD 8.6060437e-05
2,522 Learned Cardinality Estimation: A Design Space Exploration and A Comparative Evaluation 2022 VLDB 8.3477168e-05
2,583 Fauce: Fast and Accurate Deep Ensembles with Uncertainty for Cardinality Estimation 2021 VLDB 8.2589758e-05
2,634 Neural Subgraph Counting with Wasserstein Estimator 2022 SIGMOD 8.1993804e-05
2,690 Cost-based or Learning-based? A Hybrid Query Optimizer for Query Plan Selection 2022 VLDB 8.1258173e-05
2,765 Instance-Optimized Data Layouts for Cloud Analytics Workloads 2021 SIGMOD 8.0439015e-05
2,846 FactorJoin: A New Cardinality Estimation Framework for Join Queries 2023 SIGMOD 7.9453616e-05
2,885 Zero-Shot Cost Models for Out-of-the-box Learned Cost Prediction 2022 VLDB 7.9094988e-05
3,052 A Unified Deep Model of Learning from both Data and Queries for Cardinality Estimation 2021 SIGMOD 7.7052471e-05
3,327 Robust Query Driven Cardinality Estimation under Changing Workloads 2023 VLDB 7.4207879e-05
3,682 openGauss: An Autonomous Database System 2021 VLDB 7.1013922e-05
3,741 FACE: A Normalizing Flow based Cardinality Estimator 2022 VLDB 7.0594076e-05
4,079 Towards Dynamic and Safe Configuration Tuning for Cloud Databases 2022 SIGMOD 6.818264e-05
4,202 Kepler: Robust Learning for Faster Parametric Query Optimization 2023 SIGMOD 6.7374091e-05
4,258 LEON: A New Framework for ML-Aided Query Optimization 2023 VLDB 6.6994722e-05
4,311 ALECE: An Attention-based Learned Cardinality Estimator for SPJ Queries on Dynamic Workloads 2024 VLDB 6.6727978e-05
4,457 Lightweight and Accurate Cardinality Estimation by Neural Network Gaussian Process 2022 SIGMOD 6.5913732e-05
4,538 One Model to Rule them All: Towards Zero-Shot Learning for Databases 2022 CIDR 6.553705e-05
4,683 AutoSteer: Learned Query Optimization for Any SQL Database 2023 VLDB 6.4716143e-05
4,707 PreQR: Pre-training Representation for SQL Understanding 2022 SIGMOD 6.4587914e-05
4,852 LpBound: Pessimistic Cardinality Estimation using ℓp-Norms of Degree Sequences 2025 SIGMOD 6.3806134e-05
4,950 Debunking the Myth of Join Ordering: Toward Robust SQL Analytics 2025 SIGMOD 6.3421691e-05
5,058 Fine-Grained Modeling and Optimization for Intelligent Resource Management in Big Data Processing 2022 VLDB 6.2926774e-05
5,110 Steering Query Optimizers: A Practical Take on Big Data Workloads 2021 SIGMOD 6.269351e-05
5,209 SAM: Database Generation from Query Workloads with Supervised Autoregressive Models 2022 SIGMOD 6.2262056e-05
5,214 Stage: Query Execution Time Prediction in Amazon Redshift 2024 SIGMOD 6.2248104e-05
5,219 SafeBound: A Practical System for Generating Cardinality Bounds 2023 SIGMOD 6.222726e-05
5,649 Sample-Efficient Cardinality Estimation Using Geometric Deep Learning 2024 VLDB 6.052326e-05
5,657 PGMJoins: Random Join Sampling with Graphical Models 2021 SIGMOD 6.0488437e-05
5,683 How Good are Learned Cost Models, Really? Insights from Query Optimization Tasks 2025 SIGMOD 6.0392183e-05
5,716 Detect, Distill and Update: Learned DB Systems Facing Out of Distribution Data 2023 SIGMOD 6.0194657e-05
5,840 Pre-training Summarization Models of Structured Datasets for Cardinality Estimation 2022 VLDB 5.9737703e-05
5,865 Modeling Shifting Workloads for Learned Database Systems 2024 SIGMOD 5.9659203e-05
5,871 PilotScope: Steering Databases with Machine Learning Drivers 2024 VLDB 5.9639223e-05
5,974 Towards instance-optimized data systems 2021 VLDB 5.9305575e-05
6,308 Is Your Learned Query Optimizer Behaving As You Expect? A Machine Learning Perspective 2024 VLDB 5.8177833e-05
6,416 A Unified Transferable Model for ML-Enhanced DBMS 2022 CIDR 5.7920805e-05
6,660 Speeding Up End-to-end Query Execution via Learning-based Progressive Cardinality Estimation 2023 SIGMOD 5.7178404e-05
6,791 dbET: Execution Time Distribution-based Plan Selection 2023 SIGMOD 5.6811782e-05
6,818 ASM: Harmonizing Autoregressive Model, Sampling, and Multi-dimensional Statistics Merging for Cardinality Estimation 2024 SIGMOD 5.672718e-05
7,201 Coresets over Multiple Tables for Feature-rich and Data-efficient Machine Learning 2023 VLDB 5.5871656e-05
7,217 Refactoring Index Tuning Process with Benefit Estimation 2024 VLDB 5.5834823e-05
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Outgoing Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 28 of 28 cited papers.

Citations counted here include only citations to other VLDB/SIGMOD/CIDR/PODS papers in this database.

Rank Cited Paper Year Venue Pagerank
1 Access Path Selection in a Relational Database Management System 1979 SIGMOD 0.0023947656
15 How Good Are Query Optimizers, Really? 2016 VLDB 0.00061066921
23 Spark SQL: Relational Data Processing in Spark 2015 SIGMOD 0.00055406774
37 Improved Histograms for Selectivity Estimation of Range Predicates 1996 SIGMOD 0.00047731453
40 The Case for Learned Index Structures 2018 SIGMOD 0.00046284649
85 Learned Cardinalities: Estimating Correlated Joins with Deep Learning 2019 CIDR 0.00035864347
98 LEO - DB2's LEarning Optimizer 2001 VLDB 0.00034106982
103 Selectivity Estimation Without the Attribute Value Independence Assumption 1997 VLDB 0.00033894985
107 Improved Query Performance with Variant Indexes 1997 SIGMOD 0.00033460288
145 Neo: A Learned Query Optimizer 2019 VLDB 0.0002908188
286 Selectivity Estimation using Probabilistic Models 2001 SIGMOD 0.0002211981
309 Approximate Query Processing Using Wavelets 2000 VLDB 0.00021384073
318 DeepDB: Learn from Data, not from Queries! 2020 VLDB 0.00021167555
406 Deep Unsupervised Cardinality Estimation 2020 VLDB 0.00019045544
461 An End-to-End Learning-based Cost Estimator 2020 VLDB 0.00017829982
596 Wander Join: Online Aggregation via Random Walks 2016 SIGMOD 0.00015785583
688 Cardinality Estimation Done Right: Index-Based Join Sampling 2017 CIDR 0.00014753664
692 Selectivity Estimation for Range Predicates using Lightweight Models 2019 VLDB 0.00014741011
701 Independence is Good: Dependency-Based Histogram Synopses for High-Dimensional Data 2001 SIGMOD 0.00014680907
795 Random Sampling over Joins Revisited 2018 SIGMOD 0.00013938779
1,060 Lightweight Graphical Models for Selectivity Estimation Without Independence Assumptions 2011 VLDB 0.00012224575
1,132 Qd-tree: Learning Data Layouts for Big Data Analytics 2020 SIGMOD 0.00011898257
1,156 QuickSel: Quick Selectivity Learning with Mixture Models 2020 SIGMOD 0.00011777105
1,433 Towards a Learning Optimizer for Shared Clouds 2019 VLDB 0.00010677711
1,508 Self-Tuning, GPU-Accelerated Kernel Density Models for Multidimensional Selectivity Estimation 2015 SIGMOD 0.00010440205
1,603 SkinnerDB: Regret-Bounded Query Evaluation via Reinforcement Learning 2019 SIGMOD 0.00010097649
2,216 Estimating Join Selectivities using Bandwidth-Optimized Kernel Density Models 2017 VLDB 8.8177753e-05
2,238 Designing Succinct Secondary Indexing Mechanism by Exploiting Column Correlations 2019 SIGMOD 8.7751619e-05
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