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NeuroCard: One Cardinality Estimator for All Tables

Summary: NeuroCard uses a single neural density estimator over the database to model join cardinalities, with no independence assumptions. Join sampling and autoregressive modeling achieve state-of-the-art accuracy; scalable to dozens of tables and compact to train. (summarized by gpt-5-nano on Feb 09 2026)

Paper ID
h0056ad0d8d2b5259
Venue
VLDB
Year
2021
Pagerank
0.00017059914
Overall Rank
510 | 96.58%
DOI
10.14778/3421424.3421432
PDF
Download (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

Incoming Non-self Citations Over Time

Authors

BibTeX Citation

@article{yang_vldb21,
        title = {{NeuroCard: One Cardinality Estimator for All Tables}},
        author = {Yang, Zongheng and Kamsetty, Amog and Luan, Sifei and Liang, Eric and Duan, Yan and Chen, Xi and Stoica, Ion},
        journal = {PVLDB},
        series = {{VLDB} '21},
        volume = {14},
        number = {1},
        pages = {61--73},
        doi = {10.14778/3421424.3421432},
        url = {https://doi.org/10.14778/3421424.3421432},
        year = {2021}
}

Incoming Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 50 of 91 citing papers.

Rank Citing Paper Year Venue Pagerank
361 Bao: Making Learned Query Optimization Practical 2021 SIGMOD 0.00020000855
981 Cardinality Estimation in DBMS: A Comprehensive Benchmark Evaluation 2022 VLDB 0.00012713454
1,065 Are We Ready For Learned Cardinality Estimation? 2021 VLDB 0.00012202293
1,195 Balsa: Learning a Query Optimizer Without Expert Demonstrations 2022 SIGMOD 0.00011574218
1,515 DSB: A Decision Support Benchmark for Workload-Driven and Traditional Database Systems 2021 VLDB 0.00010418766
1,735 Flow-Loss: Learning Cardinality Estimates That Matter 2021 VLDB 9.7566604e-05
2,002 FLAT: Fast, Lightweight and Accurate Method for Cardinality Estimation 2021 VLDB 9.2076835e-05
2,209 Lero: A Learning-to-Rank Query Optimizer 2023 VLDB 8.8360101e-05
2,342 Learned Cardinality Estimation: An In-depth Study 2022 SIGMOD 8.6074783e-05
2,518 Learned Cardinality Estimation: A Design Space Exploration and A Comparative Evaluation 2022 VLDB 8.3532841e-05
2,583 Fauce: Fast and Accurate Deep Ensembles with Uncertainty for Cardinality Estimation 2021 VLDB 8.2589842e-05
2,635 Neural Subgraph Counting with Wasserstein Estimator 2022 SIGMOD 8.1954989e-05
2,686 Cost-based or Learning-based? A Hybrid Query Optimizer for Query Plan Selection 2022 VLDB 8.1300913e-05
2,765 Instance-Optimized Data Layouts for Cloud Analytics Workloads 2021 SIGMOD 8.0401855e-05
2,844 FactorJoin: A New Cardinality Estimation Framework for Join Queries 2023 SIGMOD 7.9446987e-05
2,879 Zero-Shot Cost Models for Out-of-the-box Learned Cost Prediction 2022 VLDB 7.9126862e-05
3,053 A Unified Deep Model of Learning from both Data and Queries for Cardinality Estimation 2021 SIGMOD 7.7041081e-05
3,327 Robust Query Driven Cardinality Estimation under Changing Workloads 2023 VLDB 7.4233639e-05
3,680 openGauss: An Autonomous Database System 2021 VLDB 7.1016555e-05
3,742 FACE: A Normalizing Flow based Cardinality Estimator 2022 VLDB 7.0564546e-05
4,080 Towards Dynamic and Safe Configuration Tuning for Cloud Databases 2022 SIGMOD 6.8151596e-05
4,191 Kepler: Robust Learning for Faster Parametric Query Optimization 2023 SIGMOD 6.7425275e-05
4,240 LEON: A New Framework for ML-Aided Query Optimization 2023 VLDB 6.7064546e-05
4,299 ALECE: An Attention-based Learned Cardinality Estimator for SPJ Queries on Dynamic Workloads 2024 VLDB 6.6766173e-05
4,459 Lightweight and Accurate Cardinality Estimation by Neural Network Gaussian Process 2022 SIGMOD 6.5883555e-05
4,536 One Model to Rule them All: Towards Zero-Shot Learning for Databases 2022 CIDR 6.552998e-05
4,677 AutoSteer: Learned Query Optimization for Any SQL Database 2023 VLDB 6.4721041e-05
4,708 PreQR: Pre-training Representation for SQL Understanding 2022 SIGMOD 6.4559477e-05
4,854 LpBound: Pessimistic Cardinality Estimation using ℓp-Norms of Degree Sequences 2025 SIGMOD 6.3775929e-05
4,945 Debunking the Myth of Join Ordering: Toward Robust SQL Analytics 2025 SIGMOD 6.3418058e-05
5,062 Fine-Grained Modeling and Optimization for Intelligent Resource Management in Big Data Processing 2022 VLDB 6.2896995e-05
5,110 Steering Query Optimizers: A Practical Take on Big Data Workloads 2021 SIGMOD 6.2678118e-05
5,211 SAM: Database Generation from Query Workloads with Supervised Autoregressive Models 2022 SIGMOD 6.2232582e-05
5,216 Stage: Query Execution Time Prediction in Amazon Redshift 2024 SIGMOD 6.2218868e-05
5,224 SafeBound: A Practical System for Generating Cardinality Bounds 2023 SIGMOD 6.2197808e-05
5,316 How Good are Learned Cost Models, Really? Insights from Query Optimization Tasks 2025 SIGMOD 6.1827415e-05
5,630 Sample-Efficient Cardinality Estimation Using Geometric Deep Learning 2024 VLDB 6.056758e-05
5,657 PGMJoins: Random Join Sampling with Graphical Models 2021 SIGMOD 6.0461e-05
5,700 PilotScope: Steering Databases with Machine Learning Drivers 2024 VLDB 6.028998e-05
5,715 Detect, Distill and Update: Learned DB Systems Facing Out of Distribution Data 2023 SIGMOD 6.0178585e-05
5,835 Pre-training Summarization Models of Structured Datasets for Cardinality Estimation 2022 VLDB 5.9737602e-05
5,850 Modeling Shifting Workloads for Learned Database Systems 2024 SIGMOD 5.9697921e-05
5,973 Towards instance-optimized data systems 2021 VLDB 5.9281867e-05
6,298 Is Your Learned Query Optimizer Behaving As You Expect? A Machine Learning Perspective 2024 VLDB 5.8177684e-05
6,408 A Unified Transferable Model for ML-Enhanced DBMS 2022 CIDR 5.7921918e-05
6,664 Speeding Up End-to-end Query Execution via Learning-based Progressive Cardinality Estimation 2023 SIGMOD 5.715134e-05
6,796 dbET: Execution Time Distribution-based Plan Selection 2023 SIGMOD 5.6784895e-05
6,824 ASM: Harmonizing Autoregressive Model, Sampling, and Multi-dimensional Statistics Merging for Cardinality Estimation 2024 SIGMOD 5.670071e-05
7,203 Coresets over Multiple Tables for Feature-rich and Data-efficient Machine Learning 2023 VLDB 5.5845207e-05
7,219 Refactoring Index Tuning Process with Benefit Estimation 2024 VLDB 5.5808392e-05
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Outgoing Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 28 of 28 cited papers.

Citations counted here include only citations to other VLDB/SIGMOD/CIDR/PODS papers in this database.

Rank Cited Paper Year Venue Pagerank
1 Access Path Selection in a Relational Database Management System 1979 SIGMOD 0.0023943337
15 How Good Are Query Optimizers, Really? 2016 VLDB 0.00061067652
23 Spark SQL: Relational Data Processing in Spark 2015 SIGMOD 0.00055384955
37 Improved Histograms for Selectivity Estimation of Range Predicates 1996 SIGMOD 0.0004772731
40 The Case for Learned Index Structures 2018 SIGMOD 0.00046363107
85 Learned Cardinalities: Estimating Correlated Joins with Deep Learning 2019 CIDR 0.00035876108
98 LEO - DB2's LEarning Optimizer 2001 VLDB 0.00034099838
103 Selectivity Estimation Without the Attribute Value Independence Assumption 1997 VLDB 0.00033884854
107 Improved Query Performance with Variant Indexes 1997 SIGMOD 0.00033459417
144 Neo: A Learned Query Optimizer 2019 VLDB 0.00029090793
286 Selectivity Estimation using Probabilistic Models 2001 SIGMOD 0.00022112534
309 Approximate Query Processing Using Wavelets 2000 VLDB 0.00021376597
318 DeepDB: Learn from Data, not from Queries! 2020 VLDB 0.00021166957
406 Deep Unsupervised Cardinality Estimation 2020 VLDB 0.00019050182
462 An End-to-End Learning-based Cost Estimator 2020 VLDB 0.00017836105
596 Wander Join: Online Aggregation via Random Walks 2016 SIGMOD 0.00015782051
688 Cardinality Estimation Done Right: Index-Based Join Sampling 2017 CIDR 0.00014749318
691 Selectivity Estimation for Range Predicates using Lightweight Models 2019 VLDB 0.00014737455
700 Independence is Good: Dependency-Based Histogram Synopses for High-Dimensional Data 2001 SIGMOD 0.00014675903
795 Random Sampling over Joins Revisited 2018 SIGMOD 0.00013934719
1,058 Lightweight Graphical Models for Selectivity Estimation Without Independence Assumptions 2011 VLDB 0.00012224038
1,128 Qd-tree: Learning Data Layouts for Big Data Analytics 2020 SIGMOD 0.00011901941
1,155 QuickSel: Quick Selectivity Learning with Mixture Models 2020 SIGMOD 0.00011777046
1,432 Towards a Learning Optimizer for Shared Clouds 2019 VLDB 0.00010676754
1,509 Self-Tuning, GPU-Accelerated Kernel Density Models for Multidimensional Selectivity Estimation 2015 SIGMOD 0.00010436933
1,605 SkinnerDB: Regret-Bounded Query Evaluation via Reinforcement Learning 2019 SIGMOD 0.00010095581
2,217 Estimating Join Selectivities using Bandwidth-Optimized Kernel Density Models 2017 VLDB 8.8151982e-05
2,237 Designing Succinct Secondary Indexing Mechanism by Exploiting Column Correlations 2019 SIGMOD 8.7738349e-05
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