Benchmarking Learned Indexes

Summary: Introduces a unified benchmark for learned indexes, evaluating three learned index families against traditional baselines on four real-world datasets. Finds that learned indexes can outperform non-learned indexes in read-only in-memory dense arrays, and analyzes caching, pipelining, size effects, multi-threading, and build times to explain their performance. (summarized by gpt-5-nano on Feb 09 2026)

Paper ID: 12291
Venue: VLDB
Year: 2021
Pagerank: 0.00013252326
Overall Rank: 923 | 93.59%
DOI: 10.14778/3421424.3421425

Incoming Non-self Citations Over Time

Authors

Incoming Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 50 of 56 citing papers.

Rank	Citing Paper	Year	Venue	Pagerank
1,742	Updatable Learned Index with Precise Positions	2021	VLDB	9.9382185e-05
2,443	FINEdex: A Fine-grained Learned Index Scheme for Scalable and Concurrent Memory Systems	2022	VLDB	8.6373807e-05
2,903	SNARF: A Learning-Enhanced Range Filter	2022	VLDB	8.0416223e-05
3,068	APEX: A High-Performance Learned Index on Persistent Memory	2022	VLDB	7.859091e-05
3,231	Are Updatable Learned Indexes Ready?	2022	VLDB	7.6889233e-05
3,496	TreeLine: An Update-In-Place Key-Value Store for Modern Storage	2023	VLDB	7.4372186e-05
4,004	CARMI: A Cache-Aware Learned Index with a Cost-based Construction Algorithm	2022	VLDB	7.0365146e-05
4,107	Proteus: A Self-Designing Range Filter	2022	SIGMOD	6.9589272e-05
4,256	Learned Index: A Comprehensive Experimental Evaluation	2023	VLDB	6.8662757e-05
4,598	DILI: A Distribution-Driven Learned Index	2023	VLDB	6.683617e-05
4,637	Hist-Tree: Those Who Ignore It Are Doomed to Learn	2021	CIDR	6.6558829e-05
4,661	The Price of Tailoring the Index to Your Data: Poisoning Attacks on Learned Index Structures	2022	SIGMOD	6.6386984e-05
4,742	Cuckoo Index: A Lightweight Secondary Index Structure	2020	VLDB	6.6007088e-05
4,852	PLIN: A Persistent Learned Index for Non-Volatile Memory with High Performance and Instant Recovery	2023	VLDB	6.5429252e-05
4,901	Can Learned Models Replace Hash Functions?	2023	VLDB	6.5170528e-05
5,199	GRF: A Global Range Filter for LSM-Trees with Shape Encoding	2024	SIGMOD	6.3907666e-05
5,260	Oasis: An Optimal Disjoint Segmented Learned Range Filter	2024	VLDB	6.3644313e-05
5,789	Updatable Learned Indexes Meet Disk-Resident DBMS - From Evaluations to Design Choices	2023	SIGMOD	6.1471889e-05
5,836	FILM: a Fully Learned Index for Larger-than-Memory Databases	2023	VLDB	6.1316846e-05
5,938	Towards instance-optimized data systems	2021	VLDB	6.097047e-05
6,182	A Critical Analysis of Recursive Model Indexes	2022	VLDB	6.0232833e-05
6,370	LMSFC: A Novel Multidimensional Index based on Learned Monotonic Space Filling Curves	2023	VLDB	5.9620077e-05
6,444	Range Search over Encrypted Multi-Attribute Data	2023	VLDB	5.938397e-05
6,958	Making In-Memory Learned Indexes Efficient on Disk	2024	SIGMOD	5.7990776e-05
7,521	SALI: A Scalable Adaptive Learned Index Framework based on Probability Models	2023	SIGMOD	5.6603106e-05
7,721	Accelerating String-key Learned Index Structures via Memoization-based Incremental Training	2024	VLDB	5.6188321e-05
7,881	Towards Designing and Learning Piecewise Space-Filling Curves	2023	VLDB	5.593772e-05
8,100	The Case for Learned In-Memory Joins	2023	VLDB	5.5455315e-05
8,204	The next 50 Years in Database Indexing or: The Case for Automatically Generated Index Structures	2022	VLDB	5.5361142e-05
8,303	Time Series Representation for Visualization in Apache IoTDB	2024	SIGMOD	5.5112019e-05
8,443	WISK: A Workload-aware Learned Index for Spatial Keyword Queries	2023	SIGMOD	5.4946575e-05
8,482	Adaptive Hybrid Indexes	2022	SIGMOD	5.4880805e-05
8,500	Algorithmic Complexity Attacks on Dynamic Learned Indexes	2024	VLDB	5.4845183e-05
8,547	Memento Filter: A Fast, Dynamic, and Robust Range Filter	2024	SIGMOD	5.4742553e-05
8,697	Tuning Hierarchical Learned Indexes on Disk and Beyond	2022	SIGMOD	5.4473761e-05
8,996	AirIndex: Versatile Index Tuning Through Data and Storage	2023	SIGMOD	5.4009155e-05
9,151	Diva: Dynamic Range Filter for Var-Length Keys and Queries	2025	VLDB	5.3726522e-05
9,286	Can Learned Indexes be Built Efficiently? A Deep Dive into Sampling Trade-offs	2024	SIGMOD	5.3541789e-05
9,322	Rethinking The Compaction Policies in LSM-trees	2025	SIGMOD	5.3458264e-05
9,327	Are Joins over LSM-trees Ready? Take RocksDB as an Example	2025	VLDB	5.3449422e-05
9,733	Why Are Learned Indexes So Effective but Sometimes Ineffective?	2025	VLDB	5.2802856e-05
9,902	Towards Systematic Index Dynamization	2024	VLDB	5.2464179e-05
10,038	Understanding Robustness Issues of Updatable Learned Indexes: [Experiments & Analysis]	2026	SIGMOD	5.1725247e-05
10,087	High Performance or Low Memory? An Updatable Learned Index Framework for Time-Space Tradeoff	2026	SIGMOD	5.1725247e-05
10,113	SplineSketch: Even More Accurate Quantiles with Error Guarantees	2026	SIGMOD	5.1725247e-05
10,169	From Learning to Recycling: A Log-Structured Learned-Less Index	2026	SIGMOD	5.1725247e-05
10,172	HIRE: A Hybrid Learned Index for Robust and Efficient Performance under Mixed Workloads	2026	SIGMOD	5.1725247e-05
10,176	Improving Range Scan Performance in LSM-trees with Group Caching	2026	SIGMOD	5.1725247e-05
10,282	Toward Drift-Aware Database Benchmarking	2026	VLDB	5.1725247e-05
10,331	LiBox: A Learned Index as an Array to Minimize Last-Mile Search	2026	VLDB	5.1725247e-05

Outgoing Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 13 of 13 cited papers.

Citations counted here include only citations to other VLDB/SIGMOD/CIDR/PODS papers in this database.

Rank	Cited Paper	Year	Venue	Pagerank
45	The Case for Learned Index Structures	2018	SIGMOD	0.0004530684
279	FAST: Fast Architecture Sensitive Tree Search on Modern CPUs and GPUs	2010	SIGMOD	0.00022556553
485	ALEX: An Updatable Adaptive Learned Index	2020	SIGMOD	0.00017714392
516	The PGM-index: a fully-dynamic compressed learned index with provable worst-case bounds	2020	VLDB	0.00017281242
838	FITing-Tree: A Data-aware Index Structure	2019	SIGMOD	0.0001375596
891	SuRF: Practical Range Query Filtering with Fast Succinct Tries	2018	SIGMOD	0.00013421815
915	Learning Multi-dimensional Indexes	2020	SIGMOD	0.00013295102
932	HOT: A Height Optimized Trie Index for Main-Memory Database Systems	2018	SIGMOD	0.00013184924
1,277	A Seven-Dimensional Analysis of Hashing Methods and its Implications on Query Processing	2016	VLDB	0.00011464259
1,746	Efficient Parallel Lists Intersection and Index Compression Algorithms using Graphics Processing Units	2011	VLDB	9.9270086e-05
2,233	Efficiently Searching In-Memory Sorted Arrays: Revenge of the Interpolation Search?	2019	SIGMOD	8.9617586e-05
3,292	CDFShop: Exploring and Optimizing Learned Index Structures	2020	SIGMOD	7.6154829e-05
6,353	An Eight-Dimensional Systematic Evaluation of Optimized Search Algorithms on Modern Processors	2018	VLDB	5.9671481e-05

Semantically Similar Papers

Overall Rank	Paper	Year	Venue	Pagerank
9,286	Can Learned Indexes be Built Efficiently? A Deep Dive into Sampling Trade-offs	2024	SIGMOD	5.3541789e-05
10,087	High Performance or Low Memory? An Updatable Learned Index Framework for Time-Space Tradeoff	2026	SIGMOD	5.1725247e-05
8,697	Tuning Hierarchical Learned Indexes on Disk and Beyond	2022	SIGMOD	5.4473761e-05
5,789	Updatable Learned Indexes Meet Disk-Resident DBMS - From Evaluations to Design Choices	2023	SIGMOD	6.1471889e-05
7,721	Accelerating String-key Learned Index Structures via Memoization-based Incremental Training	2024	VLDB	5.6188321e-05
10,038	Understanding Robustness Issues of Updatable Learned Indexes: [Experiments & Analysis]	2026	SIGMOD	5.1725247e-05
45	The Case for Learned Index Structures	2018	SIGMOD	0.0004530684
6,958	Making In-Memory Learned Indexes Efficient on Disk	2024	SIGMOD	5.7990776e-05
3,231	Are Updatable Learned Indexes Ready?	2022	VLDB	7.6889233e-05
4,256	Learned Index: A Comprehensive Experimental Evaluation	2023	VLDB	6.8662757e-05