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The Case for Learned Index Structures

Summary: Indexes treated as models; learned indexes proposed as replacements for B-Tree, Hash, and Bitmap indexes. The paper analyzes theoretical conditions under which learned indexes outperform traditional ones and reports initial results, signaling ML-driven data management as a design paradigm. (summarized by gpt-5-nano on Feb 09 2026)

Paper ID
h951df9242ad9178d
Venue
SIGMOD
Year
2018
Pagerank
0.00046249672
Overall Rank
40 | 99.74%
DOI
10.1145/3183713.3196909
PDF
Download (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Incoming Non-self Citations Over Time

Authors

BibTeX Citation

@inproceedings{kraska_sigmod18,
        title = {{The Case for Learned Index Structures}},
        author = {Kraska, Tim and Beutel, Alex and Chi, Ed H. and Dean, Jeffrey and Polyzotis, Neoklis},
        series = {{SIGMOD} '18},
        booktitle = {Proceedings of the {ACM} {SIGMOD} International Conference on Management of Data},
        publisher = {Association for Computing Machinery},
        doi = {10.1145/3183713.3196909},
        url = {https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3183713.3196909},
        year = {2018}
}

Incoming Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 50 of 220 citing papers.

Rank Citing Paper Year Venue Pagerank
9,318 Revisiting B-tree Compression: An Experimental Study 2024 SIGMOD 5.1831862e-05
9,337 VIP Hashing - Adapting to Skew in Popularity of Data on the Fly 2022 VLDB 5.1783355e-05
9,365 Deep Query Optimization 2019 SIGMOD 5.172678e-05
9,381 External Merge Sort for Top-K Queries: Eager input filtering guided by histograms 2020 SIGMOD 5.170504e-05
9,475 HyperBlocker: Accelerating Rule-based Blocking in Entity Resolution using GPUs 2025 VLDB 5.157794e-05
9,596 LeaFi: Data Series Indexes on Steroids with Learned Filters 2025 SIGMOD 5.1376962e-05
9,627 Can Learned Indexes be Built Efficiently? A Deep Dive into Sampling Trade-offs 2024 SIGMOD 5.1369088e-05
9,765 Outback: Fast and Communication-efficient Index for Key-Value Store on Disaggregated Memory 2025 VLDB 5.115551e-05
9,778 LES3: Learning-based Exact Set Similarity Search 2021 VLDB 5.115551e-05
9,814 Understanding Robustness Issues of Updatable Learned Indexes: [Experiments & Analysis] 2026 SIGMOD 5.1121061e-05
9,935 Approximate Sketches 2024 SIGMOD 5.0941477e-05
9,952 Cardinality Estimation for Similarity Search on High-Dimensional Data Objects: The Impact of Reference Objects 2025 VLDB 5.0910746e-05
9,960 Route Travel Time Estimation on A Road Network Revisited: Heterogeneity, Proximity, Periodicity and Dynamicity 2023 VLDB 5.0910746e-05
9,961 Waffle: In-memory Grid Index for Moving Objects with Reinforcement Learning-based Configuration Tuning System 2022 VLDB 5.0910746e-05
10,017 The Image Calculator: 10x Faster Image-AI Inference by Replacing JPEG with Self-designing Storage Format 2024 SIGMOD 5.0825892e-05
10,042 BT-Tree: A Reinforcement Learning Based Index for Big Trajectory Data 2024 SIGMOD 5.0786422e-05
10,079 From Worst-Case to Average-Case Analysis: Accurate Latency Predictions for Key-Value Storage Engines 2020 SIGMOD 5.0732737e-05
10,094 SPACE: Cardinality Estimation for Path Queries Using Cardinality-Aware Sequence-based Learning 2025 SIGMOD 5.068372e-05
10,117 Accelerating Approximate Nearest Neighbor Search in Hierarchical Graphs: Efficient Level Navigation with Shortcuts 2025 VLDB 5.0638787e-05
10,184 Does A Fish Need a Bicycle? The Case for On-Chip NPUs in DBMS 2026 CIDR 5.052396e-05
10,206 PLATON: Top-down R-tree Packing with Learned Partition Policy 2023 SIGMOD 5.0491152e-05
10,222 SWIX: A Memory-efficient Sliding Window Learned Index 2024 SIGMOD 5.0460607e-05
10,258 DBMS Fitting: Why should we learn what we already know? 2020 CIDR 5.0391159e-05
10,320 AdaChain: A Learned Adaptive Blockchain 2023 VLDB 5.0258044e-05
10,330 ChainedFilter: Combining Membership Filters by Chain Rule 2023 SIGMOD 5.0239924e-05
10,335 DobLIX: A Dual-Objective Learned Index for Log-Structured Merge Trees 2025 VLDB 5.0225409e-05
10,355 SSCard: Substring Cardinality Estimation using Suffix Tree-Guided Learned FM-Index 2026 SIGMOD 5.0156513e-05
10,417 Replace or Augment: Rethinking the Role of Learned Indexes in Relational Databases 2027 VLDB 4.9605343e-05
10,530 Fair-Count-Min: Frequency Estimation under Equal Group-wise Approximation Factor 2026 SIGMOD 4.9605343e-05
10,550 L3: A GPU-Native Co-Designed Data Format for Learned Lossless Lightweight Compression 2026 SIGMOD 4.9605343e-05
10,551 LICO: An SIMD-Aware High-Performance Learned Inverted Index Compression Framework 2026 SIGMOD 4.9605343e-05
10,552 LINE: A Learned Index with Group-Enhanced Leaves and Cache-Optimized Inner Tree 2026 SIGMOD 4.9605343e-05
10,557 Mathematical Foundations of Poisoning Attacks on Linear Regression over Cumulative Distribution Functions 2026 SIGMOD 4.9605343e-05
10,561 NeurBench: A Benchmark Suite for Learned Database Components with Drift Modeling: [Experiments & Analysis] 2026 SIGMOD 4.9605343e-05
10,566 On Self-Designing Learned Indexes 2026 SIGMOD 4.9605343e-05
10,649 High Performance or Low Memory? An Updatable Learned Index Framework for Time-Space Tradeoff 2026 SIGMOD 4.9605343e-05
10,712 Enumerating Graph Pattern Matches with ML Oracles 2026 SIGMOD 4.9605343e-05
10,717 From Learning to Recycling: A Log-Structured Learned-Less Index 2026 SIGMOD 4.9605343e-05
10,720 HIRE: A Hybrid Learned Index for Robust and Efficient Performance under Mixed Workloads 2026 SIGMOD 4.9605343e-05
10,723 Improving LZ4 for Effective Compression and Efficient Query 2026 SIGMOD 4.9605343e-05
10,728 LM-Tree: A Hybrid Learned Index for Similarity Search in Metric Spaces 2026 SIGMOD 4.9605343e-05
10,762 The Case For Language Model Approximated LIKE Predicate 2026 SIGMOD 4.9605343e-05
10,835 Kirin: Efficient In-Storage Learned Compaction for LSM-Trees via System-Algorithm Co-Design 2026 VLDB 4.9605343e-05
10,915 Rethinking Learned Index and LSM-tree Integration 2026 VLDB 4.9605343e-05
10,926 How Much Can RocksDB Chew? Achieving Near-Zero Write Stalls with Sustainable RocksDB 2026 VLDB 4.9605343e-05
10,946 ConRAD: Conformal Risk-Aware Neural Databases 2026 VLDB 4.9605343e-05
10,967 Tidehunter: Large-Value Storage With Minimal Data Relocation 2026 VLDB 4.9605343e-05
11,127 A Workload-Aware Encrypted Index for Efficient Privacy-Preserving Range Queries 2026 VLDB 4.9605343e-05
11,134 LiBox: A Learned Index as an Array to Minimize Last-Mile Search 2026 VLDB 4.9605343e-05
11,140 Learned Static Function Data Structures 2026 VLDB 4.9605343e-05
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Outgoing Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 18 of 18 cited papers.

Citations counted here include only citations to other VLDB/SIGMOD/CIDR/PODS papers in this database.

Rank Cited Paper Year Venue Pagerank
34 The Design Of Postgres 1986 SIGMOD 0.00049063803
59 Differential Files: Their Application To The Maintenance Of Large Data Bases 1976 SIGMOD 0.00039478403
68 Making B+-Trees Cache Conscious in Main Memory 2000 SIGMOD 0.00037861537
216 Small Materialized Aggregates: A Light Weight Index Structure for Data Warehousing 1998 VLDB 0.00024446892
230 A Study of Index Structures for Main Memory Database Management Systems 1986 VLDB 0.00023845485
280 FAST: Fast Architecture Sensitive Tree Search on Modern CPUs and GPUs 2010 SIGMOD 0.00022267903
649 Building a Database on S3 2008 SIGMOD 0.00015156241
959 RDF-3X: a RISC-style Engine for RDF 2008 VLDB 0.00012825889
964 Reducing the Storage Overhead of Main-Memory OLTP Databases with Hybrid Indexes 2016 SIGMOD 0.00012798312
1,117 Adaptive Range Filters for Cold Data: Avoiding Trips to Siberia 2013 VLDB 0.00011928965
1,213 A Seven-Dimensional Analysis of Hashing Methods and its Implications on Query Processing 2016 VLDB 0.00011492443
1,349 The End of a Myth: Distributed Transactions Can Scale 2017 VLDB 0.00010940559
1,449 An Architecture for Compiling UDF-centric Workflows 2015 VLDB 0.00010597074
1,507 BF-Tree: Approximate Tree Indexing 2014 VLDB 0.0001041737
1,643 SCADS: Scale-Independent Storage for Social Computing Applications 2009 CIDR 9.9801601e-05
3,383 A Hybrid B+-tree as Solution for In-Memory Indexing on CPU-GPU Heterogeneous Computing Platforms 2016 SIGMOD 7.3393628e-05
3,601 Two Birds, One Stone: A Fast, yet Lightweight, Indexing Scheme for Modern Database Systems 2017 VLDB 7.1582591e-05
4,972 The Wavelet Trie: Maintaining an Indexed Sequence of Strings in Compressed Space 2012 PODS 6.3208187e-05
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