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Learned Index: A Comprehensive Experimental Evaluation

Summary: Comprehensive empirical evaluation and taxonomy of learned indexes, dissecting design choices for position inference/refinement, inserts, concurrency, and bulk-loading within a unified testbed. Benchmarks state-of-the-art learned indexes under identical settings and gives actionable guidance for selection and design. (summarized by gpt-5-mini on Feb 09 2026)

Paper ID
hf8056eb693278335
Venue
VLDB
Year
2023
Pagerank
7.1274345e-05
Overall Rank
3,632 | 75.66%
DOI
10.14778/3594512.3594528
PDF
Download (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

Incoming Non-self Citations Over Time

Authors

BibTeX Citation

@article{sun_vldb23,
        title = {{Learned Index: A Comprehensive Experimental Evaluation}},
        author = {Sun, Zhaoyan and Zhou, Xuanhe and Li, Guoliang},
        journal = {PVLDB},
        series = {{VLDB} '23},
        volume = {16},
        number = {8},
        pages = {1992--2004},
        doi = {10.14778/3594512.3594528},
        url = {https://doi.org/10.14778/3594512.3594528},
        year = {2023}
}

Incoming Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 24 of 24 citing papers.

Rank Citing Paper Year Venue Pagerank
4,351 Chat2Data: An Interactive Data Analysis System with RAG, Vector Databases and LLMs 2024 VLDB 6.634024e-05
4,901 Oasis: An Optimal Disjoint Segmented Learned Range Filter 2024 VLDB 6.3483238e-05
6,622 Making In-Memory Learned Indexes Efficient on Disk 2024 SIGMOD 5.7136886e-05
6,889 Accelerating String-key Learned Index Structures via Memoization-based Incremental Training 2024 VLDB 5.6393954e-05
7,314 Hyper: A High-Performance and Memory-Efficient Learned Index via Hybrid Construction 2024 SIGMOD 5.5425359e-05
8,223 Algorithmic Complexity Attacks on Dynamic Learned Indexes 2024 VLDB 5.3584214e-05
8,638 Limousine: Blending Learned and Classical Indexes to Self-Design Larger-than-Memory Cloud Storage Engines 2024 SIGMOD 5.2825944e-05
8,782 A New Paradigm in Tuning Learned Indexes: A Reinforcement Learning Enhanced Approach 2025 SIGMOD 5.2647219e-05
8,825 PACE: Poisoning Attacks on Learned Cardinality Estimation 2024 SIGMOD 5.2543246e-05
8,903 Why Are Learned Indexes So Effective but Sometimes Ineffective? 2025 VLDB 5.238416e-05
9,213 FEBench: A Benchmark for Real-Time Relational Data Feature Extraction 2023 VLDB 5.1926696e-05
9,627 Can Learned Indexes be Built Efficiently? A Deep Dive into Sampling Trade-offs 2024 SIGMOD 5.1369088e-05
9,814 Understanding Robustness Issues of Updatable Learned Indexes: [Experiments & Analysis] 2026 SIGMOD 5.1121061e-05
10,117 Accelerating Approximate Nearest Neighbor Search in Hierarchical Graphs: Efficient Level Navigation with Shortcuts 2025 VLDB 5.0638787e-05
10,335 DobLIX: A Dual-Objective Learned Index for Log-Structured Merge Trees 2025 VLDB 5.0225409e-05
10,417 Replace or Augment: Rethinking the Role of Learned Indexes in Relational Databases 2027 VLDB 4.9605343e-05
10,552 LINE: A Learned Index with Group-Enhanced Leaves and Cache-Optimized Inner Tree 2026 SIGMOD 4.9605343e-05
10,557 Mathematical Foundations of Poisoning Attacks on Linear Regression over Cumulative Distribution Functions 2026 SIGMOD 4.9605343e-05
10,561 NeurBench: A Benchmark Suite for Learned Database Components with Drift Modeling: [Experiments & Analysis] 2026 SIGMOD 4.9605343e-05
10,566 On Self-Designing Learned Indexes 2026 SIGMOD 4.9605343e-05
10,720 HIRE: A Hybrid Learned Index for Robust and Efficient Performance under Mixed Workloads 2026 SIGMOD 4.9605343e-05
10,915 Rethinking Learned Index and LSM-tree Integration 2026 VLDB 4.9605343e-05
11,342 BLAEQ: A Multigrid Index for Spatial Query on Geometry Data 2025 VLDB 4.9605343e-05
11,473 LETIndex: A Secure Learned Index with TEE 2025 VLDB 4.9605343e-05
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Outgoing Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 31 of 31 cited papers.

Citations counted here include only citations to other VLDB/SIGMOD/CIDR/PODS papers in this database.

Rank Cited Paper Year Venue Pagerank
40 The Case for Learned Index Structures 2018 SIGMOD 0.00046249672
280 FAST: Fast Architecture Sensitive Tree Search on Modern CPUs and GPUs 2010 SIGMOD 0.00022267903
427 ALEX: An Updatable Adaptive Learned Index 2020 SIGMOD 0.00018429918
461 The PGM-index: a fully-dynamic compressed learned index with provable worst-case bounds 2020 VLDB 0.00017835351
774 FITing-Tree: A Data-aware Index Structure 2019 SIGMOD 0.00014063511
834 Benchmarking Learned Indexes 2021 VLDB 0.00013539098
870 Learning Multi-dimensional Indexes 2020 SIGMOD 0.0001332034
1,132 Qd-tree: Learning Data Layouts for Big Data Analytics 2020 SIGMOD 0.00011873466
1,190 Tsunami: A Learned Multi-dimensional Index for Correlated Data and Skewed Workloads 2021 VLDB 0.00011564169
1,445 LISA: A Learned Index Structure for Spatial Data 2020 SIGMOD 0.00010607118
1,529 Updatable Learned Index with Precise Positions 2021 VLDB 0.00010320909
1,884 Effectively Learning Spatial Indices 2020 VLDB 9.422145e-05
2,249 Designing Succinct Secondary Indexing Mechanism by Exploiting Column Correlations 2019 SIGMOD 8.7479608e-05
2,254 FINEdex: A Fine-grained Learned Index Scheme for Scalable and Concurrent Memory Systems 2022 VLDB 8.7429699e-05
2,523 Learned Cardinality Estimation: A Design Space Exploration and A Comparative Evaluation 2022 VLDB 8.3316032e-05
2,590 Are Updatable Learned Indexes Ready? 2022 VLDB 8.2368464e-05
2,696 Cost-based or Learning-based? A Hybrid Query Optimizer for Query Plan Selection 2022 VLDB 8.1068354e-05
2,870 APEX: A High-Performance Learned Index on Persistent Memory 2022 VLDB 7.9033232e-05
2,913 AI Meets Database: AI4DB and DB4AI 2021 SIGMOD 7.855786e-05
3,207 CDFShop: Exploring and Optimizing Learned Index Structures 2020 SIGMOD 7.5187675e-05
3,709 Stable Learned Bloom Filters for Data Streams 2020 VLDB 7.0586477e-05
3,716 CARMI: A Cache-Aware Learned Index with a Cost-based Construction Algorithm 2022 VLDB 7.0541948e-05
3,740 FACE: A Normalizing Flow based Cardinality Estimator 2022 VLDB 7.0398782e-05
4,385 NFL: Robust Learned Index via Distribution Transformation 2022 VLDB 6.613814e-05
4,621 The Price of Tailoring the Index to Your Data: Poisoning Attacks on Learned Index Structures 2022 SIGMOD 6.4828493e-05
4,656 PLIN: A Persistent Learned Index for Non-Volatile Memory with High Performance and Instant Recovery 2023 VLDB 6.468994e-05
4,727 Hist-Tree: Those Who Ignore It Are Doomed to Learn 2021 CIDR 6.4327925e-05
4,915 Can Learned Models Replace Hash Functions? 2023 VLDB 6.3452789e-05
5,421 FILM: a Fully Learned Index for Larger-than-Memory Databases 2023 VLDB 6.1231965e-05
6,279 A Critical Analysis of Recursive Model Indexes 2022 VLDB 5.8090653e-05
7,727 The next 50 Years in Database Indexing or: The Case for Automatically Generated Index Structures 2022 VLDB 5.4518367e-05
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