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Learned Index: A Comprehensive Experimental Evaluation

Summary: Comprehensive empirical evaluation and taxonomy of learned indexes, dissecting design choices for position inference/refinement, inserts, concurrency, and bulk-loading within a unified testbed. Benchmarks state-of-the-art learned indexes under identical settings and gives actionable guidance for selection and design. (summarized by gpt-5-mini on Feb 09 2026)

Paper ID
hf8056eb693278335
Venue
VLDB
Year
2023
Pagerank
7.1510804e-05
Overall Rank
3,621 | 75.67%
DOI
10.14778/3594512.3594528
PDF
Download (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

Incoming Non-self Citations Over Time

Authors

BibTeX Citation

@article{sun_vldb23,
        title = {{Learned Index: A Comprehensive Experimental Evaluation}},
        author = {Sun, Zhaoyan and Zhou, Xuanhe and Li, Guoliang},
        journal = {PVLDB},
        series = {{VLDB} '23},
        volume = {16},
        number = {8},
        pages = {1992--2004},
        doi = {10.14778/3594512.3594528},
        url = {https://doi.org/10.14778/3594512.3594528},
        year = {2023}
}

Incoming Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 24 of 24 citing papers.

Rank Citing Paper Year Venue Pagerank
4,346 Chat2Data: An Interactive Data Analysis System with RAG, Vector Databases and LLMs 2024 VLDB 6.646096e-05
4,878 Oasis: An Optimal Disjoint Segmented Learned Range Filter 2024 VLDB 6.369385e-05
6,613 Making In-Memory Learned Indexes Efficient on Disk 2024 SIGMOD 5.7326443e-05
6,867 Accelerating String-key Learned Index Structures via Memoization-based Incremental Training 2024 VLDB 5.6581046e-05
7,297 Hyper: A High-Performance and Memory-Efficient Learned Index via Hybrid Construction 2024 SIGMOD 5.5609237e-05
8,208 Algorithmic Complexity Attacks on Dynamic Learned Indexes 2024 VLDB 5.3761984e-05
8,619 Limousine: Blending Learned and Classical Indexes to Self-Design Larger-than-Memory Cloud Storage Engines 2024 SIGMOD 5.3001199e-05
8,761 A New Paradigm in Tuning Learned Indexes: A Reinforcement Learning Enhanced Approach 2025 SIGMOD 5.2821881e-05
8,808 PACE: Poisoning Attacks on Learned Cardinality Estimation 2024 SIGMOD 5.2717563e-05
8,882 Why Are Learned Indexes So Effective but Sometimes Ineffective? 2025 VLDB 5.255795e-05
9,189 FEBench: A Benchmark for Real-Time Relational Data Feature Extraction 2023 VLDB 5.2097224e-05
9,601 Can Learned Indexes be Built Efficiently? A Deep Dive into Sampling Trade-offs 2024 SIGMOD 5.153951e-05
9,782 Understanding Robustness Issues of Updatable Learned Indexes: [Experiments & Analysis] 2026 SIGMOD 5.129066e-05
10,083 Accelerating Approximate Nearest Neighbor Search in Hierarchical Graphs: Efficient Level Navigation with Shortcuts 2025 VLDB 5.0806786e-05
10,307 DobLIX: A Dual-Objective Learned Index for Log-Structured Merge Trees 2025 VLDB 5.0392037e-05
10,350 Replace or Augment: Rethinking the Role of Learned Indexes in Relational Databases 2027 VLDB 4.9769913e-05
10,486 LINE: A Learned Index with Group-Enhanced Leaves and Cache-Optimized Inner Tree 2026 SIGMOD 4.9769913e-05
10,491 Mathematical Foundations of Poisoning Attacks on Linear Regression over Cumulative Distribution Functions 2026 SIGMOD 4.9769913e-05
10,495 NeurBench: A Benchmark Suite for Learned Database Components with Drift Modeling: [Experiments & Analysis] 2026 SIGMOD 4.9769913e-05
10,500 On Self-Designing Learned Indexes 2026 SIGMOD 4.9769913e-05
10,659 HIRE: A Hybrid Learned Index for Robust and Efficient Performance under Mixed Workloads 2026 SIGMOD 4.9769913e-05
10,854 Rethinking Learned Index and LSM-tree Integration 2026 VLDB 4.9769913e-05
11,286 BLAEQ: A Multigrid Index for Spatial Query on Geometry Data 2025 VLDB 4.9769913e-05
11,420 LETIndex: A Secure Learned Index with TEE 2025 VLDB 4.9769913e-05
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Outgoing Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 31 of 31 cited papers.

Citations counted here include only citations to other VLDB/SIGMOD/CIDR/PODS papers in this database.

Rank Cited Paper Year Venue Pagerank
40 The Case for Learned Index Structures 2018 SIGMOD 0.00046363107
277 FAST: Fast Architecture Sensitive Tree Search on Modern CPUs and GPUs 2010 SIGMOD 0.00022320139
422 ALEX: An Updatable Adaptive Learned Index 2020 SIGMOD 0.00018488849
458 The PGM-index: a fully-dynamic compressed learned index with provable worst-case bounds 2020 VLDB 0.00017880664
768 FITing-Tree: A Data-aware Index Structure 2019 SIGMOD 0.00014107655
835 Benchmarking Learned Indexes 2021 VLDB 0.00013575971
869 Learning Multi-dimensional Indexes 2020 SIGMOD 0.00013363241
1,128 Qd-tree: Learning Data Layouts for Big Data Analytics 2020 SIGMOD 0.00011901941
1,188 Tsunami: A Learned Multi-dimensional Index for Correlated Data and Skewed Workloads 2021 VLDB 0.00011598149
1,440 LISA: A Learned Index Structure for Spatial Data 2020 SIGMOD 0.00010638444
1,525 Updatable Learned Index with Precise Positions 2021 VLDB 0.00010355133
1,877 Effectively Learning Spatial Indices 2020 VLDB 9.4498401e-05
2,237 Designing Succinct Secondary Indexing Mechanism by Exploiting Column Correlations 2019 SIGMOD 8.7738349e-05
2,270 FINEdex: A Fine-grained Learned Index Scheme for Scalable and Concurrent Memory Systems 2022 VLDB 8.7166469e-05
2,518 Learned Cardinality Estimation: A Design Space Exploration and A Comparative Evaluation 2022 VLDB 8.3532841e-05
2,582 Are Updatable Learned Indexes Ready? 2022 VLDB 8.2641447e-05
2,686 Cost-based or Learning-based? A Hybrid Query Optimizer for Query Plan Selection 2022 VLDB 8.1300913e-05
2,861 APEX: A High-Performance Learned Index on Persistent Memory 2022 VLDB 7.9295281e-05
2,908 AI Meets Database: AI4DB and DB4AI 2021 SIGMOD 7.8716173e-05
3,198 CDFShop: Exploring and Optimizing Learned Index Structures 2020 SIGMOD 7.5422544e-05
3,701 Stable Learned Bloom Filters for Data Streams 2020 VLDB 7.0820503e-05
3,710 CARMI: A Cache-Aware Learned Index with a Cost-based Construction Algorithm 2022 VLDB 7.0775695e-05
3,742 FACE: A Normalizing Flow based Cardinality Estimator 2022 VLDB 7.0564546e-05
4,362 NFL: Robust Learned Index via Distribution Transformation 2022 VLDB 6.6357559e-05
4,618 The Price of Tailoring the Index to Your Data: Poisoning Attacks on Learned Index Structures 2022 SIGMOD 6.4981355e-05
4,635 PLIN: A Persistent Learned Index for Non-Volatile Memory with High Performance and Instant Recovery 2023 VLDB 6.4904555e-05
4,715 Hist-Tree: Those Who Ignore It Are Doomed to Learn 2021 CIDR 6.4537149e-05
4,890 Can Learned Models Replace Hash Functions? 2023 VLDB 6.3663299e-05
5,405 FILM: a Fully Learned Index for Larger-than-Memory Databases 2023 VLDB 6.1435108e-05
6,267 A Critical Analysis of Recursive Model Indexes 2022 VLDB 5.8283218e-05
7,714 The next 50 Years in Database Indexing or: The Case for Automatically Generated Index Structures 2022 VLDB 5.4699237e-05
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