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Learned Index: A Comprehensive Experimental Evaluation

Summary: Comprehensive empirical evaluation and taxonomy of learned indexes, dissecting design choices for position inference/refinement, inserts, concurrency, and bulk-loading within a unified testbed. Benchmarks state-of-the-art learned indexes under identical settings and gives actionable guidance for selection and design. (summarized by gpt-5-mini on Feb 09 2026)

Paper ID
hf8056eb693278335
Venue
VLDB
Year
2023
Pagerank
7.0882335e-05
Overall Rank
3,697 | 75.15%
DOI
10.14778/3594512.3594528

Incoming Non-self Citations Over Time

Authors

BibTeX Citation

@article{sun_vldb23,
        title = {{Learned Index: A Comprehensive Experimental Evaluation}},
        author = {Sun, Zhaoyan and Zhou, Xuanhe and Li, Guoliang},
        journal = {PVLDB},
        series = {{VLDB} '23},
        volume = {16},
        number = {8},
        pages = {1992--2004},
        doi = {10.14778/3594512.3594528},
        url = {https://doi.org/10.14778/3594512.3594528},
        year = {2023}
}

Incoming Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 23 of 23 citing papers.

Rank Citing Paper Year Venue Pagerank
4,718 Chat2Data: An Interactive Data Analysis System with RAG, Vector Databases and LLMs 2024 VLDB 6.4551989e-05
4,875 Oasis: An Optimal Disjoint Segmented Learned Range Filter 2024 VLDB 6.3724016e-05
6,821 Making In-Memory Learned Indexes Efficient on Disk 2024 SIGMOD 5.6720444e-05
6,863 Accelerating String-key Learned Index Structures via Memoization-based Incremental Training 2024 VLDB 5.6607844e-05
7,535 Hyper: A High-Performance and Memory-Efficient Learned Index via Hybrid Construction 2024 SIGMOD 5.5003117e-05
8,200 Algorithmic Complexity Attacks on Dynamic Learned Indexes 2024 VLDB 5.3787447e-05
8,620 Limousine: Blending Learned and Classical Indexes to Self-Design Larger-than-Memory Cloud Storage Engines 2024 SIGMOD 5.301557e-05
8,753 A New Paradigm in Tuning Learned Indexes: A Reinforcement Learning Enhanced Approach 2025 SIGMOD 5.2846898e-05
8,800 PACE: Poisoning Attacks on Learned Cardinality Estimation 2024 SIGMOD 5.2742531e-05
8,873 Why Are Learned Indexes So Effective but Sometimes Ineffective? 2025 VLDB 5.2582842e-05
9,179 FEBench: A Benchmark for Real-Time Relational Data Feature Extraction 2023 VLDB 5.2121898e-05
9,593 Can Learned Indexes be Built Efficiently? A Deep Dive into Sampling Trade-offs 2024 SIGMOD 5.156392e-05
9,777 Understanding Robustness Issues of Updatable Learned Indexes: [Experiments & Analysis] 2026 SIGMOD 5.1314952e-05
10,078 Accelerating Approximate Nearest Neighbor Search in Hierarchical Graphs: Efficient Level Navigation with Shortcuts 2025 VLDB 5.0830849e-05
10,475 LINE: A Learned Index with Group-Enhanced Leaves and Cache-Optimized Inner Tree 2026 SIGMOD 4.9793485e-05
10,480 Mathematical Foundations of Poisoning Attacks on Linear Regression over Cumulative Distribution Functions 2026 SIGMOD 4.9793485e-05
10,484 NeurBench: A Benchmark Suite for Learned Database Components with Drift Modeling: [Experiments & Analysis] 2026 SIGMOD 4.9793485e-05
10,489 On Self-Designing Learned Indexes 2026 SIGMOD 4.9793485e-05
10,648 HIRE: A Hybrid Learned Index for Robust and Efficient Performance under Mixed Workloads 2026 SIGMOD 4.9793485e-05
10,844 Rethinking Learned Index and LSM-tree Integration 2026 VLDB 4.9793485e-05
11,278 BLAEQ: A Multigrid Index for Spatial Query on Geometry Data 2025 VLDB 4.9793485e-05
11,342 DobLIX: A Dual-Objective Learned Index for Log-Structured Merge Trees 2025 VLDB 4.9793485e-05
11,414 LETIndex: A Secure Learned Index with TEE 2025 VLDB 4.9793485e-05
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Outgoing Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 31 of 31 cited papers.

Citations counted here include only citations to other VLDB/SIGMOD/CIDR/PODS papers in this database.

Rank Cited Paper Year Venue Pagerank
40 The Case for Learned Index Structures 2018 SIGMOD 0.00046284649
282 FAST: Fast Architecture Sensitive Tree Search on Modern CPUs and GPUs 2010 SIGMOD 0.00022264207
430 ALEX: An Updatable Adaptive Learned Index 2020 SIGMOD 0.00018409112
463 The PGM-index: a fully-dynamic compressed learned index with provable worst-case bounds 2020 VLDB 0.00017804544
779 FITing-Tree: A Data-aware Index Structure 2019 SIGMOD 0.00014030069
848 Benchmarking Learned Indexes 2021 VLDB 0.00013506188
868 Learning Multi-dimensional Indexes 2020 SIGMOD 0.00013354403
1,132 Qd-tree: Learning Data Layouts for Big Data Analytics 2020 SIGMOD 0.00011898257
1,191 Tsunami: A Learned Multi-dimensional Index for Correlated Data and Skewed Workloads 2021 VLDB 0.00011590153
1,446 LISA: A Learned Index Structure for Spatial Data 2020 SIGMOD 0.00010629222
1,550 Updatable Learned Index with Precise Positions 2021 VLDB 0.00010282449
1,878 Effectively Learning Spatial Indices 2020 VLDB 9.4451309e-05
2,238 Designing Succinct Secondary Indexing Mechanism by Exploiting Column Correlations 2019 SIGMOD 8.7751619e-05
2,277 FINEdex: A Fine-grained Learned Index Scheme for Scalable and Concurrent Memory Systems 2022 VLDB 8.7075835e-05
2,522 Learned Cardinality Estimation: A Design Space Exploration and A Comparative Evaluation 2022 VLDB 8.3477168e-05
2,636 Are Updatable Learned Indexes Ready? 2022 VLDB 8.1941043e-05
2,690 Cost-based or Learning-based? A Hybrid Query Optimizer for Query Plan Selection 2022 VLDB 8.1258173e-05
2,866 APEX: A High-Performance Learned Index on Persistent Memory 2022 VLDB 7.9258875e-05
2,908 AI Meets Database: AI4DB and DB4AI 2021 SIGMOD 7.8742664e-05
3,206 CDFShop: Exploring and Optimizing Learned Index Structures 2020 SIGMOD 7.5397402e-05
3,703 Stable Learned Bloom Filters for Data Streams 2020 VLDB 7.0842566e-05
3,741 FACE: A Normalizing Flow based Cardinality Estimator 2022 VLDB 7.0594076e-05
3,803 CARMI: A Cache-Aware Learned Index with a Cost-based Construction Algorithm 2022 VLDB 7.0127652e-05
4,508 NFL: Robust Learned Index via Distribution Transformation 2022 VLDB 6.5704964e-05
4,616 The Price of Tailoring the Index to Your Data: Poisoning Attacks on Learned Index Structures 2022 SIGMOD 6.5000712e-05
4,641 PLIN: A Persistent Learned Index for Non-Volatile Memory with High Performance and Instant Recovery 2023 VLDB 6.4899953e-05
4,721 Hist-Tree: Those Who Ignore It Are Doomed to Learn 2021 CIDR 6.4541703e-05
4,890 Can Learned Models Replace Hash Functions? 2023 VLDB 6.3682031e-05
5,571 FILM: a Fully Learned Index for Larger-than-Memory Databases 2023 VLDB 6.080267e-05
6,274 A Critical Analysis of Recursive Model Indexes 2022 VLDB 5.8271888e-05
7,710 The next 50 Years in Database Indexing or: The Case for Automatically Generated Index Structures 2022 VLDB 5.4713723e-05
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