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Benchmarking Learned Indexes

Summary: Introduces a unified benchmark for learned indexes, evaluating three learned index families against traditional baselines on four real-world datasets. Finds that learned indexes can outperform non-learned indexes in read-only in-memory dense arrays, and analyzes caching, pipelining, size effects, multi-threading, and build times to explain their performance. (summarized by gpt-5-nano on Feb 09 2026)

Paper ID
h118d510f8874de3a
Venue
VLDB
Year
2021
Pagerank
0.00013575971
Overall Rank
835 | 94.39%
DOI
10.14778/3421424.3421425
PDF
Download (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

Incoming Non-self Citations Over Time

Authors

BibTeX Citation

@article{marcus_vldb21,
        title = {{Benchmarking Learned Indexes}},
        author = {Marcus, Ryan and Kipf, Andreas and van Renen, Alexander and Stoian, Mihail and Misra, Sanchit and Kemper, Alfons and Neumann, Thomas and Kraska, Tim},
        journal = {PVLDB},
        series = {{VLDB} '21},
        volume = {14},
        number = {1},
        pages = {1--13},
        doi = {10.14778/3421424.3421425},
        url = {https://doi.org/10.14778/3421424.3421425},
        year = {2021}
}

Incoming Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 50 of 61 citing papers.

Rank Citing Paper Year Venue Pagerank
1,525 Updatable Learned Index with Precise Positions 2021 VLDB 0.00010355133
2,270 FINEdex: A Fine-grained Learned Index Scheme for Scalable and Concurrent Memory Systems 2022 VLDB 8.7166469e-05
2,582 Are Updatable Learned Indexes Ready? 2022 VLDB 8.2641447e-05
2,839 SNARF: A Learning-Enhanced Range Filter 2022 VLDB 7.9490277e-05
2,861 APEX: A High-Performance Learned Index on Persistent Memory 2022 VLDB 7.9295281e-05
3,233 TreeLine: An Update-In-Place Key-Value Store for Modern Storage 2023 VLDB 7.5008192e-05
3,621 Learned Index: A Comprehensive Experimental Evaluation 2023 VLDB 7.1510804e-05
3,710 CARMI: A Cache-Aware Learned Index with a Cost-based Construction Algorithm 2022 VLDB 7.0775695e-05
4,198 Proteus: A Self-Designing Range Filter 2022 SIGMOD 6.7385809e-05
4,366 DILI: A Distribution-Driven Learned Index 2023 VLDB 6.6330579e-05
4,618 The Price of Tailoring the Index to Your Data: Poisoning Attacks on Learned Index Structures 2022 SIGMOD 6.4981355e-05
4,635 PLIN: A Persistent Learned Index for Non-Volatile Memory with High Performance and Instant Recovery 2023 VLDB 6.4904555e-05
4,715 Hist-Tree: Those Who Ignore It Are Doomed to Learn 2021 CIDR 6.4537149e-05
4,753 GRF: A Global Range Filter for LSM-Trees with Shape Encoding 2024 SIGMOD 6.4334982e-05
4,755 Cuckoo Index: A Lightweight Secondary Index Structure 2020 VLDB 6.4309508e-05
4,878 Oasis: An Optimal Disjoint Segmented Learned Range Filter 2024 VLDB 6.369385e-05
4,890 Can Learned Models Replace Hash Functions? 2023 VLDB 6.3663299e-05
5,378 Updatable Learned Indexes Meet Disk-Resident DBMS - From Evaluations to Design Choices 2023 SIGMOD 6.1551053e-05
5,405 FILM: a Fully Learned Index for Larger-than-Memory Databases 2023 VLDB 6.1435108e-05
5,973 Towards instance-optimized data systems 2021 VLDB 5.9281867e-05
6,267 A Critical Analysis of Recursive Model Indexes 2022 VLDB 5.8283218e-05
6,549 Memento Filter: A Fast, Dynamic, and Robust Range Filter 2024 SIGMOD 5.7482274e-05
6,597 LMSFC: A Novel Multidimensional Index based on Learned Monotonic Space Filling Curves 2023 VLDB 5.7386302e-05
6,613 Making In-Memory Learned Indexes Efficient on Disk 2024 SIGMOD 5.7326443e-05
6,667 Range Search over Encrypted Multi-Attribute Data 2023 VLDB 5.7139119e-05
6,787 SALI: A Scalable Adaptive Learned Index Framework based on Probability Models 2023 SIGMOD 5.6810904e-05
6,867 Accelerating String-key Learned Index Structures via Memoization-based Incremental Training 2024 VLDB 5.6581046e-05
7,157 Adaptive Hybrid Indexes 2022 SIGMOD 5.595284e-05
7,537 Time Series Representation for Visualization in Apache IoTDB 2024 SIGMOD 5.4982385e-05
7,714 The next 50 Years in Database Indexing or: The Case for Automatically Generated Index Structures 2022 VLDB 5.4699237e-05
8,138 Diva: Dynamic Range Filter for Var-Length Keys and Queries 2025 VLDB 5.3905556e-05
8,186 Towards Designing and Learning Piecewise Space-Filling Curves 2023 VLDB 5.3800965e-05
8,204 WISK: A Workload-aware Learned Index for Spatial Keyword Queries 2023 SIGMOD 5.3769515e-05
8,208 Algorithmic Complexity Attacks on Dynamic Learned Indexes 2024 VLDB 5.3761984e-05
8,382 Tuning Hierarchical Learned Indexes on Disk and Beyond 2022 SIGMOD 5.341043e-05
8,402 The Case for Learned In-Memory Joins 2023 VLDB 5.3375308e-05
8,427 Femur: A Flexible Framework for Fast and Secure Querying from Public Key-Value Store 2025 SIGMOD 5.3324907e-05
8,540 AirIndex: Versatile Index Tuning Through Data and Storage 2023 SIGMOD 5.3192281e-05
8,882 Why Are Learned Indexes So Effective but Sometimes Ineffective? 2025 VLDB 5.255795e-05
9,140 Rethinking The Compaction Policies in LSM-trees 2025 SIGMOD 5.2208299e-05
9,159 Towards Systematic Index Dynamization 2024 VLDB 5.2161634e-05
9,601 Can Learned Indexes be Built Efficiently? A Deep Dive into Sampling Trade-offs 2024 SIGMOD 5.153951e-05
9,654 Are Joins over LSM-trees Ready? Take RocksDB as an Example 2025 VLDB 5.142891e-05
9,782 Understanding Robustness Issues of Updatable Learned Indexes: [Experiments & Analysis] 2026 SIGMOD 5.129066e-05
9,805 SplineSketch: Even More Accurate Quantiles with Error Guarantees 2026 SIGMOD 5.1233734e-05
10,188 SWIX: A Memory-efficient Sliding Window Learned Index 2024 SIGMOD 5.0628015e-05
10,307 DobLIX: A Dual-Objective Learned Index for Log-Structured Merge Trees 2025 VLDB 5.0392037e-05
10,350 Replace or Augment: Rethinking the Role of Learned Indexes in Relational Databases 2027 VLDB 4.9769913e-05
10,491 Mathematical Foundations of Poisoning Attacks on Linear Regression over Cumulative Distribution Functions 2026 SIGMOD 4.9769913e-05
10,500 On Self-Designing Learned Indexes 2026 SIGMOD 4.9769913e-05
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Outgoing Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 13 of 13 cited papers.

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