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Benchmarking Learned Indexes

Summary: Introduces a unified benchmark for learned indexes, evaluating three learned index families against traditional baselines on four real-world datasets. Finds that learned indexes can outperform non-learned indexes in read-only in-memory dense arrays, and analyzes caching, pipelining, size effects, multi-threading, and build times to explain their performance. (summarized by gpt-5-nano on Feb 09 2026)

Paper ID
h118d510f8874de3a
Venue
VLDB
Year
2021
Pagerank
0.00013506188
Overall Rank
848 | 94.31%
DOI
10.14778/3421424.3421425

Incoming Non-self Citations Over Time

Authors

BibTeX Citation

@article{marcus_vldb21,
        title = {{Benchmarking Learned Indexes}},
        author = {Marcus, Ryan and Kipf, Andreas and van Renen, Alexander and Stoian, Mihail and Misra, Sanchit and Kemper, Alfons and Neumann, Thomas and Kraska, Tim},
        journal = {PVLDB},
        series = {{VLDB} '21},
        volume = {14},
        number = {1},
        pages = {1--13},
        doi = {10.14778/3421424.3421425},
        url = {https://doi.org/10.14778/3421424.3421425},
        year = {2021}
}

Incoming Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 50 of 60 citing papers.

Rank Citing Paper Year Venue Pagerank
1,550 Updatable Learned Index with Precise Positions 2021 VLDB 0.00010282449
2,277 FINEdex: A Fine-grained Learned Index Scheme for Scalable and Concurrent Memory Systems 2022 VLDB 8.7075835e-05
2,636 Are Updatable Learned Indexes Ready? 2022 VLDB 8.1941043e-05
2,837 SNARF: A Learning-Enhanced Range Filter 2022 VLDB 7.9527715e-05
2,866 APEX: A High-Performance Learned Index on Persistent Memory 2022 VLDB 7.9258875e-05
3,232 TreeLine: An Update-In-Place Key-Value Store for Modern Storage 2023 VLDB 7.50343e-05
3,697 Learned Index: A Comprehensive Experimental Evaluation 2023 VLDB 7.0882335e-05
3,803 CARMI: A Cache-Aware Learned Index with a Cost-based Construction Algorithm 2022 VLDB 7.0127652e-05
4,197 Proteus: A Self-Designing Range Filter 2022 SIGMOD 6.7417716e-05
4,375 DILI: A Distribution-Driven Learned Index 2023 VLDB 6.6292167e-05
4,616 The Price of Tailoring the Index to Your Data: Poisoning Attacks on Learned Index Structures 2022 SIGMOD 6.5000712e-05
4,641 PLIN: A Persistent Learned Index for Non-Volatile Memory with High Performance and Instant Recovery 2023 VLDB 6.4899953e-05
4,721 Hist-Tree: Those Who Ignore It Are Doomed to Learn 2021 CIDR 6.4541703e-05
4,750 GRF: A Global Range Filter for LSM-Trees with Shape Encoding 2024 SIGMOD 6.4354422e-05
4,756 Cuckoo Index: A Lightweight Secondary Index Structure 2020 VLDB 6.43221e-05
4,875 Oasis: An Optimal Disjoint Segmented Learned Range Filter 2024 VLDB 6.3724016e-05
4,890 Can Learned Models Replace Hash Functions? 2023 VLDB 6.3682031e-05
5,537 Updatable Learned Indexes Meet Disk-Resident DBMS - From Evaluations to Design Choices 2023 SIGMOD 6.0919359e-05
5,571 FILM: a Fully Learned Index for Larger-than-Memory Databases 2023 VLDB 6.080267e-05
5,974 Towards instance-optimized data systems 2021 VLDB 5.9305575e-05
6,274 A Critical Analysis of Recursive Model Indexes 2022 VLDB 5.8271888e-05
6,547 Memento Filter: A Fast, Dynamic, and Robust Range Filter 2024 SIGMOD 5.7509499e-05
6,595 LMSFC: A Novel Multidimensional Index based on Learned Monotonic Space Filling Curves 2023 VLDB 5.7413481e-05
6,663 Range Search over Encrypted Multi-Attribute Data 2023 VLDB 5.7166181e-05
6,821 Making In-Memory Learned Indexes Efficient on Disk 2024 SIGMOD 5.6720444e-05
6,863 Accelerating String-key Learned Index Structures via Memoization-based Incremental Training 2024 VLDB 5.6607844e-05
7,018 SALI: A Scalable Adaptive Learned Index Framework based on Probability Models 2023 SIGMOD 5.619958e-05
7,154 Adaptive Hybrid Indexes 2022 SIGMOD 5.597934e-05
7,531 Time Series Representation for Visualization in Apache IoTDB 2024 SIGMOD 5.5008425e-05
7,710 The next 50 Years in Database Indexing or: The Case for Automatically Generated Index Structures 2022 VLDB 5.4713723e-05
8,132 Diva: Dynamic Range Filter for Var-Length Keys and Queries 2025 VLDB 5.3931086e-05
8,179 Towards Designing and Learning Piecewise Space-Filling Curves 2023 VLDB 5.3826446e-05
8,196 WISK: A Workload-aware Learned Index for Spatial Keyword Queries 2023 SIGMOD 5.3794981e-05
8,200 Algorithmic Complexity Attacks on Dynamic Learned Indexes 2024 VLDB 5.3787447e-05
8,378 Tuning Hierarchical Learned Indexes on Disk and Beyond 2022 SIGMOD 5.3433888e-05
8,403 The Case for Learned In-Memory Joins 2023 VLDB 5.3389852e-05
8,418 Femur: A Flexible Framework for Fast and Secure Querying from Public Key-Value Store 2025 SIGMOD 5.3350162e-05
8,532 AirIndex: Versatile Index Tuning Through Data and Storage 2023 SIGMOD 5.3217474e-05
8,873 Why Are Learned Indexes So Effective but Sometimes Ineffective? 2025 VLDB 5.2582842e-05
9,130 Rethinking The Compaction Policies in LSM-trees 2025 SIGMOD 5.2233025e-05
9,149 Towards Systematic Index Dynamization 2024 VLDB 5.2186338e-05
9,593 Can Learned Indexes be Built Efficiently? A Deep Dive into Sampling Trade-offs 2024 SIGMOD 5.156392e-05
9,646 Are Joins over LSM-trees Ready? Take RocksDB as an Example 2025 VLDB 5.1453267e-05
9,777 Understanding Robustness Issues of Updatable Learned Indexes: [Experiments & Analysis] 2026 SIGMOD 5.1314952e-05
9,798 SplineSketch: Even More Accurate Quantiles with Error Guarantees 2026 SIGMOD 5.1257999e-05
10,185 SWIX: A Memory-efficient Sliding Window Learned Index 2024 SIGMOD 5.0651993e-05
10,480 Mathematical Foundations of Poisoning Attacks on Linear Regression over Cumulative Distribution Functions 2026 SIGMOD 4.9793485e-05
10,489 On Self-Designing Learned Indexes 2026 SIGMOD 4.9793485e-05
10,518 Zeno Filter: To Infinity in Tiny Steps 2026 SIGMOD 4.9793485e-05
10,575 High Performance or Low Memory? An Updatable Learned Index Framework for Time-Space Tradeoff 2026 SIGMOD 4.9793485e-05
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Outgoing Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 13 of 13 cited papers.

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