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NeuroCard: One Cardinality Estimator for All Tables

Summary: NeuroCard uses a single neural density estimator over the database to model join cardinalities, with no independence assumptions. Join sampling and autoregressive modeling achieve state-of-the-art accuracy; scalable to dozens of tables and compact to train. (summarized by gpt-5-nano on Feb 09 2026)

Paper ID
12767
Venue
VLDB
Year
2021
Pagerank
0.00017190574
Overall Rank
513 | 96.49%
DOI
10.14778/3421424.3421432

Incoming Non-self Citations Over Time

Authors

BibTeX Citation

@article{yang_vldb21,
        title = {{NeuroCard: One Cardinality Estimator for All Tables}},
        author = {Yang, Zongheng and Kamsetty, Amog and Luan, Sifei and Liang, Eric and Duan, Yan and Chen, Xi and Stoica, Ion},
        journal = {PVLDB},
        series = {{VLDB} '21},
        volume = {14},
        number = {1},
        pages = {61--73},
        doi = {10.14778/3421424.3421432},
        url = {https://doi.org/10.14778/3421424.3421432},
        year = {2021}
}

Incoming Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 50 of 91 citing papers.

Rank Citing Paper Year Venue Pagerank
378 Bao: Making Learned Query Optimization Practical 2021 SIGMOD 0.00019638121
1,061 Are We Ready For Learned Cardinality Estimation? 2021 VLDB 0.00012369764
1,122 Cardinality Estimation in DBMS: A Comprehensive Benchmark Evaluation 2022 VLDB 0.0001209124
1,241 Balsa: Learning a Query Optimizer Without Expert Demonstrations 2022 SIGMOD 0.00011521639
1,832 DSB: A Decision Support Benchmark for Workload-Driven and Traditional Database Systems 2021 VLDB 9.6607418e-05
1,876 Flow-Loss: Learning Cardinality Estimates That Matter 2021 VLDB 9.5717543e-05
1,988 FLAT: Fast, Lightweight and Accurate Method for Cardinality Estimation 2021 VLDB 9.3501502e-05
2,420 Lero: A Learning-to-Rank Query Optimizer 2023 VLDB 8.605257e-05
2,543 Learned Cardinality Estimation: An In-depth Study 2022 SIGMOD 8.4445934e-05
2,620 Fauce: Fast and Accurate Deep Ensembles with Uncertainty for Cardinality Estimation 2021 VLDB 8.3363963e-05
2,723 Learned Cardinality Estimation: A Design Space Exploration and A Comparative Evaluation 2022 VLDB 8.2049453e-05
2,731 Neural Subgraph Counting with Wasserstein Estimator 2022 SIGMOD 8.1959181e-05
2,762 Cost-based or Learning-based? A Hybrid Query Optimizer for Query Plan Selection 2022 VLDB 8.1539867e-05
2,844 Zero-Shot Cost Models for Out-of-the-box Learned Cost Prediction 2022 VLDB 8.0608767e-05
2,991 FactorJoin: A New Cardinality Estimation Framework for Join Queries 2023 SIGMOD 7.8880723e-05
3,035 Instance-Optimized Data Layouts for Cloud Analytics Workloads 2021 SIGMOD 7.8297746e-05
3,086 A Unified Deep Model of Learning from both Data and Queries for Cardinality Estimation 2021 SIGMOD 7.7708642e-05
3,338 Robust Query Driven Cardinality Estimation under Changing Workloads 2023 VLDB 7.5068221e-05
3,662 openGauss: An Autonomous Database System 2021 VLDB 7.2166682e-05
3,688 FACE: A Normalizing Flow based Cardinality Estimator 2022 VLDB 7.201795e-05
4,011 Towards Dynamic and Safe Configuration Tuning for Cloud Databases 2022 SIGMOD 6.959982e-05
4,349 ALECE: An Attention-based Learned Cardinality Estimator for SPJ Queries on Dynamic Workloads 2024 VLDB 6.7504619e-05
4,368 Lightweight and Accurate Cardinality Estimation by Neural Network Gaussian Process 2022 SIGMOD 6.7393882e-05
4,434 LEON: A New Framework for ML-Aided Query Optimization 2023 VLDB 6.7079088e-05
4,468 One Model to Rule them All: Towards Zero-Shot Learning for Databases 2022 CIDR 6.6819041e-05
4,470 Kepler: Robust Learning for Faster Parametric Query Optimization 2023 SIGMOD 6.6817353e-05
4,671 PreQR: Pre-training Representation for SQL Understanding 2022 SIGMOD 6.5732787e-05
4,929 AutoSteer: Learned Query Optimization for Any SQL Database 2023 VLDB 6.4423294e-05
5,059 Steering Query Optimizers: A Practical Take on Big Data Workloads 2021 SIGMOD 6.3807509e-05
5,105 SAM: Database Generation from Query Workloads with Supervised Autoregressive Models 2022 SIGMOD 6.3628539e-05
5,107 Stage: Query Execution Time Prediction in Amazon Redshift 2024 SIGMOD 6.3623786e-05
5,388 Fine-Grained Modeling and Optimization for Intelligent Resource Management in Big Data Processing 2022 VLDB 6.2362811e-05
5,529 Debunking the Myth of Join Ordering: Toward Robust SQL Analytics 2025 SIGMOD 6.18591e-05
5,551 PGMJoins: Random Join Sampling with Graphical Models 2021 SIGMOD 6.1782856e-05
5,576 SafeBound: A Practical System for Generating Cardinality Bounds 2023 SIGMOD 6.1663946e-05
5,639 LpBound: Pessimistic Cardinality Estimation using ℓp-Norms of Degree Sequences 2025 SIGMOD 6.1385102e-05
5,712 Sample-Efficient Cardinality Estimation Using Geometric Deep Learning 2024 VLDB 6.1123894e-05
5,792 Pre-training Summarization Models of Structured Datasets for Cardinality Estimation 2022 VLDB 6.0871213e-05
5,974 Towards instance-optimized data systems 2021 VLDB 6.0230488e-05
6,088 How Good are Learned Cost Models, Really? Insights from Query Optimization Tasks 2025 SIGMOD 5.9813965e-05
6,132 Detect, Distill and Update: Learned DB Systems Facing Out of Distribution Data 2023 SIGMOD 5.9660278e-05
6,271 Is Your Learned Query Optimizer Behaving As You Expect? A Machine Learning Perspective 2024 VLDB 5.9326197e-05
6,323 Modeling Shifting Workloads for Learned Database Systems 2024 SIGMOD 5.9141228e-05
6,357 A Unified Transferable Model for ML-Enhanced DBMS 2022 CIDR 5.9020843e-05
6,462 PilotScope: Steering Databases with Machine Learning Drivers 2024 VLDB 5.8717744e-05
6,543 Speeding Up End-to-end Query Execution via Learning-based Progressive Cardinality Estimation 2023 SIGMOD 5.8461929e-05
6,704 ASM: Harmonizing Autoregressive Model, Sampling, and Multi-dimensional Statistics Merging for Cardinality Estimation 2024 SIGMOD 5.797374e-05
7,076 Refactoring Index Tuning Process with Benefit Estimation 2024 VLDB 5.7098893e-05
7,112 Coresets over Multiple Tables for Feature-rich and Data-efficient Machine Learning 2023 VLDB 5.6990782e-05
7,193 dbET: Execution Time Distribution-based Plan Selection 2023 SIGMOD 5.6770249e-05
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Outgoing Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 28 of 28 cited papers.

Citations counted here include only citations to other VLDB/SIGMOD/CIDR/PODS papers in this database.

Rank Cited Paper Year Venue Pagerank
1 Access Path Selection in a Relational Database Management System 1979 SIGMOD 0.0024089429
18 How Good Are Query Optimizers, Really? 2016 VLDB 0.00059284255
24 Spark SQL: Relational Data Processing in Spark 2015 SIGMOD 0.00054865648
35 Improved Histograms for Selectivity Estimation of Range Predicates 1996 SIGMOD 0.00048481081
43 The Case for Learned Index Structures 2018 SIGMOD 0.00046060254
84 Learned Cardinalities: Estimating Correlated Joins with Deep Learning 2019 CIDR 0.00035838391
100 LEO - DB2's LEarning Optimizer 2001 VLDB 0.00034385207
101 Selectivity Estimation Without the Attribute Value Independence Assumption 1997 VLDB 0.00034376651
104 Improved Query Performance with Variant Indexes 1997 SIGMOD 0.00033932213
154 Neo: A Learned Query Optimizer 2019 VLDB 0.00028726181
280 Selectivity Estimation using Probabilistic Models 2001 SIGMOD 0.00022454217
307 Approximate Query Processing Using Wavelets 2000 VLDB 0.00021792475
323 DeepDB: Learn from Data, not from Queries! 2020 VLDB 0.00021264788
401 Deep Unsupervised Cardinality Estimation 2020 VLDB 0.00019092557
465 An End-to-End Learning-based Cost Estimator 2020 VLDB 0.0001803934
593 Wander Join: Online Aggregation via Random Walks 2016 SIGMOD 0.00016027871
692 Independence is Good: Dependency-Based Histogram Synopses for High-Dimensional Data 2001 SIGMOD 0.00014919816
694 Cardinality Estimation Done Right: Index-Based Join Sampling 2017 CIDR 0.00014911698
697 Selectivity Estimation for Range Predicates using Lightweight Models 2019 VLDB 0.00014888851
802 Random Sampling over Joins Revisited 2018 SIGMOD 0.00013907725
1,071 Lightweight Graphical Models for Selectivity Estimation Without Independence Assumptions 2011 VLDB 0.00012322342
1,135 Qd-tree: Learning Data Layouts for Big Data Analytics 2020 SIGMOD 0.00012032847
1,170 QuickSel: Quick Selectivity Learning with Mixture Models 2020 SIGMOD 0.00011827259
1,468 Towards a Learning Optimizer for Shared Clouds 2019 VLDB 0.00010686496
1,503 Self-Tuning, GPU-Accelerated Kernel Density Models for Multidimensional Selectivity Estimation 2015 SIGMOD 0.000105564
1,712 SkinnerDB: Regret-Bounded Query Evaluation via Reinforcement Learning 2019 SIGMOD 9.9492299e-05
2,203 Estimating Join Selectivities using Bandwidth-Optimized Kernel Density Models 2017 VLDB 8.9610447e-05
2,213 Designing Succinct Secondary Indexing Mechanism by Exploiting Column Correlations 2019 SIGMOD 8.9410226e-05
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