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APEX: A High-Performance Learned Index on Persistent Memory

Summary: APEX adapts the updatable ALEX learned index for persistent memory, combining distribution-aware models with PM-specific techniques to minimize costly accesses while supporting concurrency and persistence. It delivers up to 15× higher performance than PM indexes and ~42 ms crash recovery. (summarized by gpt-5.6-luna on Jul 24 2026)

Paper ID
h24f3ff3ace5706a4
Venue
VLDB
Year
2022
Pagerank
7.9295281e-05
Overall Rank
2,861 | 80.78%
DOI
10.14778/3494124.3494141
PDF
Download (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

Incoming Non-self Citations Over Time

Authors

BibTeX Citation

@article{lu_vldb22,
        title = {{APEX: A High-Performance Learned Index on Persistent Memory}},
        author = {Lu, Baotong and Ding, Jialin and Lo, Eric and Minhas, Umar Farooq and Wang, Tianz​heng},
        journal = {PVLDB},
        series = {{VLDB} '22},
        volume = {15},
        number = {3},
        pages = {597--610},
        doi = {10.14778/3494124.3494141},
        url = {https://doi.org/10.14778/3494124.3494141},
        year = {2022}
}

Incoming Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 30 of 30 citing papers.

Rank Citing Paper Year Venue Pagerank
2,582 Are Updatable Learned Indexes Ready? 2022 VLDB 8.2641447e-05
3,621 Learned Index: A Comprehensive Experimental Evaluation 2023 VLDB 7.1510804e-05
4,362 NFL: Robust Learned Index via Distribution Transformation 2022 VLDB 6.6357559e-05
4,366 DILI: A Distribution-Driven Learned Index 2023 VLDB 6.6330579e-05
4,635 PLIN: A Persistent Learned Index for Non-Volatile Memory with High Performance and Instant Recovery 2023 VLDB 6.4904555e-05
4,878 Oasis: An Optimal Disjoint Segmented Learned Range Filter 2024 VLDB 6.369385e-05
5,973 Towards instance-optimized data systems 2021 VLDB 5.9281867e-05
6,486 Bf-Tree: A Modern Read-Write-Optimized Concurrent Larger-Than-Memory Range Index 2024 VLDB 5.766886e-05
6,613 Making In-Memory Learned Indexes Efficient on Disk 2024 SIGMOD 5.7326443e-05
6,787 SALI: A Scalable Adaptive Learned Index Framework based on Probability Models 2023 SIGMOD 5.6810904e-05
6,867 Accelerating String-key Learned Index Structures via Memoization-based Incremental Training 2024 VLDB 5.6581046e-05
6,882 Evaluating Persistent Memory Range Indexes: Part Two 2022 VLDB 5.6554818e-05
6,942 The Past, Present and Future of Indexing on Persistent Memory 2022 VLDB 5.6367484e-05
8,208 Algorithmic Complexity Attacks on Dynamic Learned Indexes 2024 VLDB 5.3761984e-05
8,540 AirIndex: Versatile Index Tuning Through Data and Storage 2023 SIGMOD 5.3192281e-05
8,649 OptiQL: Robust Optimistic Locking for Memory-Optimized Indexes 2023 SIGMOD 5.2932376e-05
8,761 A New Paradigm in Tuning Learned Indexes: A Reinforcement Learning Enhanced Approach 2025 SIGMOD 5.2821881e-05
9,073 A Design Space Exploration and Evaluation for Main-Memory Hash Joins in Storage Class Memory 2023 VLDB 5.2258409e-05
9,601 Can Learned Indexes be Built Efficiently? A Deep Dive into Sampling Trade-offs 2024 SIGMOD 5.153951e-05
10,172 PLATON: Top-down R-tree Packing with Learned Partition Policy 2023 SIGMOD 5.0658661e-05
10,307 DobLIX: A Dual-Objective Learned Index for Log-Structured Merge Trees 2025 VLDB 5.0392037e-05
10,486 LINE: A Learned Index with Group-Enhanced Leaves and Cache-Optimized Inner Tree 2026 SIGMOD 4.9769913e-05
10,491 Mathematical Foundations of Poisoning Attacks on Linear Regression over Cumulative Distribution Functions 2026 SIGMOD 4.9769913e-05
10,586 High Performance or Low Memory? An Updatable Learned Index Framework for Time-Space Tradeoff 2026 SIGMOD 4.9769913e-05
10,659 HIRE: A Hybrid Learned Index for Robust and Efficient Performance under Mixed Workloads 2026 SIGMOD 4.9769913e-05
10,760 Operation-Aware Hybrid Locking for Modern In-Memory Indexes 2026 VLDB 4.9769913e-05
10,854 Rethinking Learned Index and LSM-tree Integration 2026 VLDB 4.9769913e-05
11,073 LiBox: A Learned Index as an Array to Minimize Last-Mile Search 2026 VLDB 4.9769913e-05
11,245 FB+-tree: A Memory-Optimized B+-tree with Latch-Free Update 2025 VLDB 4.9769913e-05
11,680 Data Pipes: Declarative Control over Data Movement 2023 CIDR 4.9769913e-05
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Outgoing Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 22 of 22 cited papers.

Citations counted here include only citations to other VLDB/SIGMOD/CIDR/PODS papers in this database.

Rank Cited Paper Year Venue Pagerank
40 The Case for Learned Index Structures 2018 SIGMOD 0.00046363107
68 Making B+-Trees Cache Conscious in Main Memory 2000 SIGMOD 0.00037957995
422 ALEX: An Updatable Adaptive Learned Index 2020 SIGMOD 0.00018488849
458 The PGM-index: a fully-dynamic compressed learned index with provable worst-case bounds 2020 VLDB 0.00017880664
502 FPTree: A Hybrid SCM-DRAM Persistent and Concurrent B-Tree for Storage Class Memory 2016 SIGMOD 0.00017250394
630 Persistent B+-Trees in Non-Volatile Main Memory 2015 VLDB 0.00015412011
768 FITing-Tree: A Data-aware Index Structure 2019 SIGMOD 0.00014107655
835 Benchmarking Learned Indexes 2021 VLDB 0.00013575971
869 Learning Multi-dimensional Indexes 2020 SIGMOD 0.00013363241
904 HOT: A Height Optimized Trie Index for Main-Memory Database Systems 2018 SIGMOD 0.00013170142
960 Reducing the Storage Overhead of Main-Memory OLTP Databases with Hybrid Indexes 2016 SIGMOD 0.0001283613
966 BzTree: A High-Performance Latch-free Range Index for Non-Volatile Memory 2018 VLDB 0.00012806678
1,128 Qd-tree: Learning Data Layouts for Big Data Analytics 2020 SIGMOD 0.00011901941
1,188 Tsunami: A Learned Multi-dimensional Index for Correlated Data and Skewed Workloads 2021 VLDB 0.00011598149
1,359 Dash: Scalable Hashing on Persistent Memory 2020 VLDB 0.00010914954
1,440 LISA: A Learned Index Structure for Spatial Data 2020 SIGMOD 0.00010638444
1,525 Updatable Learned Index with Precise Positions 2021 VLDB 0.00010355133
1,856 LB+-Trees: Optimizing Persistent Index Performance on 3DXPoint Memory 2020 VLDB 9.4960518e-05
1,877 Effectively Learning Spatial Indices 2020 VLDB 9.4498401e-05
2,277 DPTree: Differential Indexing for Persistent Memory 2020 VLDB 8.7072748e-05
2,742 Evaluating Persistent Memory Range Indexes 2020 VLDB 8.0645378e-05
6,197 Patience is a Virtue: Revisiting Merge and Sort on Modern Processors 2014 SIGMOD 5.8518899e-05
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Semantically Similar Papers

# Overall Rank Paper Year Venue
1 10,500 On Self-Designing Learned Indexes 2026 SIGMOD
2 7,297 Hyper: A High-Performance and Memory-Efficient Learned Index via Hybrid Construction 2024 SIGMOD
3 4,635 PLIN: A Persistent Learned Index for Non-Volatile Memory with High Performance and Instant Recovery 2023 VLDB
4 4,515 Persistent Memory Hash Indexes: An Experimental Evaluation 2021 VLDB
5 6,070 When Tree Meets Hash: Reducing Random Reads for Index Structures on Persistent Memories 2023 SIGMOD
6 835 Benchmarking Learned Indexes 2021 VLDB
7 422 ALEX: An Updatable Adaptive Learned Index 2020 SIGMOD
8 6,882 Evaluating Persistent Memory Range Indexes: Part Two 2022 VLDB
9 2,277 DPTree: Differential Indexing for Persistent Memory 2020 VLDB
10 2,742 Evaluating Persistent Memory Range Indexes 2020 VLDB