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NeuroCard: One Cardinality Estimator for All Tables

Summary: NeuroCard uses a single neural density estimator over the database to model join cardinalities, with no independence assumptions. Join sampling and autoregressive modeling achieve state-of-the-art accuracy; scalable to dozens of tables and compact to train. (summarized by gpt-5-nano on Feb 09 2026)

Paper ID
h0056ad0d8d2b5259
Venue
VLDB
Year
2021
Pagerank
0.00017108973
Overall Rank
508 | 96.60%
DOI
10.14778/3421424.3421432
PDF
Download (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

Incoming Non-self Citations Over Time

Authors

BibTeX Citation

@article{yang_vldb21,
        title = {{NeuroCard: One Cardinality Estimator for All Tables}},
        author = {Yang, Zongheng and Kamsetty, Amog and Luan, Sifei and Liang, Eric and Duan, Yan and Chen, Xi and Stoica, Ion},
        journal = {PVLDB},
        series = {{VLDB} '21},
        volume = {14},
        number = {1},
        pages = {61--73},
        doi = {10.14778/3421424.3421432},
        url = {https://doi.org/10.14778/3421424.3421432},
        year = {2021}
}

Incoming Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 50 of 92 citing papers.

Rank Citing Paper Year Venue Pagerank
355 Bao: Making Learned Query Optimization Practical 2021 SIGMOD 0.00020146245
983 Cardinality Estimation in DBMS: A Comprehensive Benchmark Evaluation 2022 VLDB 0.00012677179
1,064 Are We Ready For Learned Cardinality Estimation? 2021 VLDB 0.00012181459
1,175 Balsa: Learning a Query Optimizer Without Expert Demonstrations 2022 SIGMOD 0.00011630532
1,513 DSB: A Decision Support Benchmark for Workload-Driven and Traditional Database Systems 2021 VLDB 0.00010394557
1,740 Flow-Loss: Learning Cardinality Estimates That Matter 2021 VLDB 9.7289523e-05
2,009 FLAT: Fast, Lightweight and Accurate Method for Cardinality Estimation 2021 VLDB 9.1813272e-05
2,190 Lero: A Learning-to-Rank Query Optimizer 2023 VLDB 8.8848923e-05
2,348 Learned Cardinality Estimation: An In-depth Study 2022 SIGMOD 8.5910072e-05
2,523 Learned Cardinality Estimation: A Design Space Exploration and A Comparative Evaluation 2022 VLDB 8.3316032e-05
2,584 Fauce: Fast and Accurate Deep Ensembles with Uncertainty for Cardinality Estimation 2021 VLDB 8.2435322e-05
2,619 Zero-Shot Cost Models for Out-of-the-box Learned Cost Prediction 2022 VLDB 8.1985665e-05
2,635 Neural Subgraph Counting with Wasserstein Estimator 2022 SIGMOD 8.1795762e-05
2,696 Cost-based or Learning-based? A Hybrid Query Optimizer for Query Plan Selection 2022 VLDB 8.1068354e-05
2,772 Instance-Optimized Data Layouts for Cloud Analytics Workloads 2021 SIGMOD 8.0148928e-05
2,852 FactorJoin: A New Cardinality Estimation Framework for Join Queries 2023 SIGMOD 7.9201312e-05
3,060 A Unified Deep Model of Learning from both Data and Queries for Cardinality Estimation 2021 SIGMOD 7.6828463e-05
3,269 Robust Query Driven Cardinality Estimation under Changing Workloads 2023 VLDB 7.463682e-05
3,687 openGauss: An Autonomous Database System 2021 VLDB 7.0797286e-05
3,740 FACE: A Normalizing Flow based Cardinality Estimator 2022 VLDB 7.0398782e-05
4,101 Towards Dynamic and Safe Configuration Tuning for Cloud Databases 2022 SIGMOD 6.7930727e-05
4,202 Kepler: Robust Learning for Faster Parametric Query Optimization 2023 SIGMOD 6.7258607e-05
4,247 LEON: A New Framework for ML-Aided Query Optimization 2023 VLDB 6.6920059e-05
4,315 ALECE: An Attention-based Learned Cardinality Estimator for SPJ Queries on Dynamic Workloads 2024 VLDB 6.6545412e-05
4,479 Lightweight and Accurate Cardinality Estimation by Neural Network Gaussian Process 2022 SIGMOD 6.5665703e-05
4,549 One Model to Rule them All: Towards Zero-Shot Learning for Databases 2022 CIDR 6.5328866e-05
4,641 How Good are Learned Cost Models, Really? Insights from Query Optimization Tasks 2025 SIGMOD 6.4739208e-05
4,683 AutoSteer: Learned Query Optimization for Any SQL Database 2023 VLDB 6.4545989e-05
4,720 PreQR: Pre-training Representation for SQL Understanding 2022 SIGMOD 6.4353798e-05
4,833 Stage: Query Execution Time Prediction in Amazon Redshift 2024 SIGMOD 6.3834856e-05
4,882 LpBound: Pessimistic Cardinality Estimation using ℓp-Norms of Degree Sequences 2025 SIGMOD 6.3565046e-05
4,971 Debunking the Myth of Join Ordering: Toward Robust SQL Analytics 2025 SIGMOD 6.3209003e-05
5,043 Fine-Grained Modeling and Optimization for Intelligent Resource Management in Big Data Processing 2022 VLDB 6.28918e-05
5,075 SafeBound: A Practical System for Generating Cardinality Bounds 2023 SIGMOD 6.2721634e-05
5,126 Steering Query Optimizers: A Practical Take on Big Data Workloads 2021 SIGMOD 6.2493606e-05
5,237 SAM: Database Generation from Query Workloads with Supervised Autoregressive Models 2022 SIGMOD 6.2027113e-05
5,457 Sample-Efficient Cardinality Estimation Using Geometric Deep Learning 2024 VLDB 6.1058928e-05
5,671 PGMJoins: Random Join Sampling with Graphical Models 2021 SIGMOD 6.026372e-05
5,713 PilotScope: Steering Databases with Machine Learning Drivers 2024 VLDB 6.0090633e-05
5,728 Detect, Distill and Update: Learned DB Systems Facing Out of Distribution Data 2023 SIGMOD 5.9979958e-05
5,837 Pre-training Summarization Models of Structured Datasets for Cardinality Estimation 2022 VLDB 5.9600736e-05
5,854 Modeling Shifting Workloads for Learned Database Systems 2024 SIGMOD 5.9520525e-05
5,982 Towards instance-optimized data systems 2021 VLDB 5.9096991e-05
6,109 Is Your Learned Query Optimizer Behaving As You Expect? A Machine Learning Perspective 2024 VLDB 5.8676956e-05
6,402 A Unified Transferable Model for ML-Enhanced DBMS 2022 CIDR 5.7800842e-05
6,654 Coresets over Multiple Tables for Feature-rich and Data-efficient Machine Learning 2023 VLDB 5.7038474e-05
6,672 Speeding Up End-to-end Query Execution via Learning-based Progressive Cardinality Estimation 2023 SIGMOD 5.6975871e-05
6,812 dbET: Execution Time Distribution-based Plan Selection 2023 SIGMOD 5.6597129e-05
6,840 ASM: Harmonizing Autoregressive Model, Sampling, and Multi-dimensional Statistics Merging for Cardinality Estimation 2024 SIGMOD 5.6513231e-05
7,238 Refactoring Index Tuning Process with Benefit Estimation 2024 VLDB 5.5624225e-05
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Outgoing Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 28 of 28 cited papers.

Citations counted here include only citations to other VLDB/SIGMOD/CIDR/PODS papers in this database.

Rank Cited Paper Year Venue Pagerank
1 Access Path Selection in a Relational Database Management System 1979 SIGMOD 0.0023948467
15 How Good Are Query Optimizers, Really? 2016 VLDB 0.00061463175
23 Spark SQL: Relational Data Processing in Spark 2015 SIGMOD 0.00055523999
37 Improved Histograms for Selectivity Estimation of Range Predicates 1996 SIGMOD 0.00047654188
40 The Case for Learned Index Structures 2018 SIGMOD 0.00046249672
84 Learned Cardinalities: Estimating Correlated Joins with Deep Learning 2019 CIDR 0.00035920657
98 LEO - DB2's LEarning Optimizer 2001 VLDB 0.00034050614
103 Selectivity Estimation Without the Attribute Value Independence Assumption 1997 VLDB 0.00033847446
107 Improved Query Performance with Variant Indexes 1997 SIGMOD 0.00033376274
142 Neo: A Learned Query Optimizer 2019 VLDB 0.00029114937
287 Selectivity Estimation using Probabilistic Models 2001 SIGMOD 0.00022060616
311 Approximate Query Processing Using Wavelets 2000 VLDB 0.00021315058
320 DeepDB: Learn from Data, not from Queries! 2020 VLDB 0.00021128745
405 Deep Unsupervised Cardinality Estimation 2020 VLDB 0.00019020138
453 An End-to-End Learning-based Cost Estimator 2020 VLDB 0.0001801482
594 Wander Join: Online Aggregation via Random Walks 2016 SIGMOD 0.00015814493
689 Cardinality Estimation Done Right: Index-Based Join Sampling 2017 CIDR 0.00014725904
690 Selectivity Estimation for Range Predicates using Lightweight Models 2019 VLDB 0.00014703258
701 Independence is Good: Dependency-Based Histogram Synopses for High-Dimensional Data 2001 SIGMOD 0.0001464136
793 Random Sampling over Joins Revisited 2018 SIGMOD 0.00013903938
1,061 Lightweight Graphical Models for Selectivity Estimation Without Independence Assumptions 2011 VLDB 0.00012207625
1,132 Qd-tree: Learning Data Layouts for Big Data Analytics 2020 SIGMOD 0.00011873466
1,156 QuickSel: Quick Selectivity Learning with Mixture Models 2020 SIGMOD 0.00011759683
1,436 Towards a Learning Optimizer for Shared Clouds 2019 VLDB 0.00010658836
1,511 Self-Tuning, GPU-Accelerated Kernel Density Models for Multidimensional Selectivity Estimation 2015 SIGMOD 0.00010408003
1,609 SkinnerDB: Regret-Bounded Query Evaluation via Reinforcement Learning 2019 SIGMOD 0.0001007196
2,228 Estimating Join Selectivities using Bandwidth-Optimized Kernel Density Models 2017 VLDB 8.7912743e-05
2,249 Designing Succinct Secondary Indexing Mechanism by Exploiting Column Correlations 2019 SIGMOD 8.7479608e-05
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