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The Case for Learned Index Structures

Summary: Indexes treated as models; learned indexes proposed as replacements for B-Tree, Hash, and Bitmap indexes. The paper analyzes theoretical conditions under which learned indexes outperform traditional ones and reports initial results, signaling ML-driven data management as a design paradigm. (summarized by gpt-5-nano on Feb 09 2026)

Paper ID
h951df9242ad9178d
Venue
SIGMOD
Year
2018
Pagerank
0.00046249672
Overall Rank
40 | 99.74%
DOI
10.1145/3183713.3196909
PDF
Download (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Incoming Non-self Citations Over Time

Authors

BibTeX Citation

@inproceedings{kraska_sigmod18,
        title = {{The Case for Learned Index Structures}},
        author = {Kraska, Tim and Beutel, Alex and Chi, Ed H. and Dean, Jeffrey and Polyzotis, Neoklis},
        series = {{SIGMOD} '18},
        booktitle = {Proceedings of the {ACM} {SIGMOD} International Conference on Management of Data},
        publisher = {Association for Computing Machinery},
        doi = {10.1145/3183713.3196909},
        url = {https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3183713.3196909},
        year = {2018}
}

Incoming Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 50 of 220 citing papers.

Rank Citing Paper Year Venue Pagerank
84 Learned Cardinalities: Estimating Correlated Joins with Deep Learning 2019 CIDR 0.00035920657
142 Neo: A Learned Query Optimizer 2019 VLDB 0.00029114937
320 DeepDB: Learn from Data, not from Queries! 2020 VLDB 0.00021128745
355 Bao: Making Learned Query Optimization Practical 2021 SIGMOD 0.00020146245
427 ALEX: An Updatable Adaptive Learned Index 2020 SIGMOD 0.00018429918
461 The PGM-index: a fully-dynamic compressed learned index with provable worst-case bounds 2020 VLDB 0.00017835351
508 NeuroCard: One Cardinality Estimator for All Tables 2021 VLDB 0.00017108973
545 Plan-Structured Deep Neural Network Models for Query Performance Prediction 2019 VLDB 0.0001657599
550 SageDB: A Learned Database System 2019 CIDR 0.00016525249
774 FITing-Tree: A Data-aware Index Structure 2019 SIGMOD 0.00014063511
834 Benchmarking Learned Indexes 2021 VLDB 0.00013539098
870 Learning Multi-dimensional Indexes 2020 SIGMOD 0.0001332034
1,064 Are We Ready For Learned Cardinality Estimation? 2021 VLDB 0.00012181459
1,132 Qd-tree: Learning Data Layouts for Big Data Analytics 2020 SIGMOD 0.00011873466
1,156 QuickSel: Quick Selectivity Learning with Mixture Models 2020 SIGMOD 0.00011759683
1,190 Tsunami: A Learned Multi-dimensional Index for Correlated Data and Skewed Workloads 2021 VLDB 0.00011564169
1,282 AI Meets AI: Leveraging Query Executions to Improve Index Recommendations 2019 SIGMOD 0.00011197535
1,416 Northstar: An Interactive Data Science System 2018 VLDB 0.00010707248
1,436 Towards a Learning Optimizer for Shared Clouds 2019 VLDB 0.00010658836
1,445 LISA: A Learned Index Structure for Spatial Data 2020 SIGMOD 0.00010607118
1,529 Updatable Learned Index with Precise Positions 2021 VLDB 0.00010320909
1,583 Deep Learning Models for Selectivity Estimation of Multi-Attribute Queries 2020 SIGMOD 0.00010148362
1,815 From Natural Language Processing to Neural Databases 2021 VLDB 9.5644373e-05
1,884 Effectively Learning Spatial Indices 2020 VLDB 9.422145e-05
1,900 Design Continuums and the Path Toward Self-Designing Key-Value Stores that Know and Learn 2019 CIDR 9.3926585e-05
1,931 CodexDB: Synthesizing Code for Query Processing from Natural Language Instructions using GPT-3 Codex 2022 VLDB 9.3449634e-05
1,991 Chucky: A Succinct Cuckoo Filter for LSM-Tree 2021 SIGMOD 9.2264312e-05
2,009 FLAT: Fast, Lightweight and Accurate Method for Cardinality Estimation 2021 VLDB 9.1813272e-05
2,247 Efficiently Searching In-Memory Sorted Arrays: Revenge of the Interpolation Search? 2019 SIGMOD 8.7591557e-05
2,249 Designing Succinct Secondary Indexing Mechanism by Exploiting Column Correlations 2019 SIGMOD 8.7479608e-05
2,254 FINEdex: A Fine-grained Learned Index Scheme for Scalable and Concurrent Memory Systems 2022 VLDB 8.7429699e-05
2,584 Fauce: Fast and Accurate Deep Ensembles with Uncertainty for Cardinality Estimation 2021 VLDB 8.2435322e-05
2,590 Are Updatable Learned Indexes Ready? 2022 VLDB 8.2368464e-05
2,696 Cost-based or Learning-based? A Hybrid Query Optimizer for Query Plan Selection 2022 VLDB 8.1068354e-05
2,772 Instance-Optimized Data Layouts for Cloud Analytics Workloads 2021 SIGMOD 8.0148928e-05
2,828 Cost Models for Big Data Query Processing: Learning, Retrofitting, and Our Findings 2020 SIGMOD 7.9476509e-05
2,844 SNARF: A Learning-Enhanced Range Filter 2022 VLDB 7.9291659e-05
2,870 APEX: A High-Performance Learned Index on Persistent Memory 2022 VLDB 7.9033232e-05
2,891 Optimal Column Layout for Hybrid Workloads 2019 VLDB 7.887378e-05
2,913 AI Meets Database: AI4DB and DB4AI 2021 SIGMOD 7.855786e-05
2,929 iBTune: Individualized Buffer Tuning for Large-scale Cloud Databases 2019 VLDB 7.830745e-05
3,062 Towards a Hands-Free Query Optimizer through Deep Learning 2019 CIDR 7.6809918e-05
3,244 Similarity Query Processing for High-Dimensional Data 2020 VLDB 7.479122e-05
3,249 TreeLine: An Update-In-Place Key-Value Store for Modern Storage 2023 VLDB 7.4761584e-05
3,282 Estimating Cardinalities with Deep Sketches 2019 SIGMOD 7.4491295e-05
3,328 Auto-WLM: Machine Learning Enhanced Workload Management in Amazon Redshift 2023 SIGMOD 7.4094448e-05
3,481 LOGER: A Learned Optimizer towards Generating Efficient and Robust Query Execution Plans 2023 VLDB 7.2463722e-05
3,486 HUNTER: An Online Cloud Database Hybrid Tuning System for Personalized Requirements 2022 SIGMOD 7.2428834e-05
3,489 Cosine: A Cloud-Cost Optimized Self-Designing Key-Value Storage Engine 2022 VLDB 7.2421958e-05
3,555 Astrid: Accurate Selectivity Estimation for String Predicates using Deep Learning 2021 VLDB 7.1877332e-05
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Outgoing Citations (Sorted by Pagerank)

Showing 18 of 18 cited papers.

Citations counted here include only citations to other VLDB/SIGMOD/CIDR/PODS papers in this database.

Rank Cited Paper Year Venue Pagerank
34 The Design Of Postgres 1986 SIGMOD 0.00049063803
59 Differential Files: Their Application To The Maintenance Of Large Data Bases 1976 SIGMOD 0.00039478403
68 Making B+-Trees Cache Conscious in Main Memory 2000 SIGMOD 0.00037861537
216 Small Materialized Aggregates: A Light Weight Index Structure for Data Warehousing 1998 VLDB 0.00024446892
230 A Study of Index Structures for Main Memory Database Management Systems 1986 VLDB 0.00023845485
280 FAST: Fast Architecture Sensitive Tree Search on Modern CPUs and GPUs 2010 SIGMOD 0.00022267903
649 Building a Database on S3 2008 SIGMOD 0.00015156241
959 RDF-3X: a RISC-style Engine for RDF 2008 VLDB 0.00012825889
964 Reducing the Storage Overhead of Main-Memory OLTP Databases with Hybrid Indexes 2016 SIGMOD 0.00012798312
1,117 Adaptive Range Filters for Cold Data: Avoiding Trips to Siberia 2013 VLDB 0.00011928965
1,213 A Seven-Dimensional Analysis of Hashing Methods and its Implications on Query Processing 2016 VLDB 0.00011492443
1,349 The End of a Myth: Distributed Transactions Can Scale 2017 VLDB 0.00010940559
1,449 An Architecture for Compiling UDF-centric Workflows 2015 VLDB 0.00010597074
1,507 BF-Tree: Approximate Tree Indexing 2014 VLDB 0.0001041737
1,643 SCADS: Scale-Independent Storage for Social Computing Applications 2009 CIDR 9.9801601e-05
3,383 A Hybrid B+-tree as Solution for In-Memory Indexing on CPU-GPU Heterogeneous Computing Platforms 2016 SIGMOD 7.3393628e-05
3,601 Two Birds, One Stone: A Fast, yet Lightweight, Indexing Scheme for Modern Database Systems 2017 VLDB 7.1582591e-05
4,972 The Wavelet Trie: Maintaining an Indexed Sequence of Strings in Compressed Space 2012 PODS 6.3208187e-05
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